PHA 6562 - Cell Injury, Cell Death, and Cell Adaptation

Pathology

explains the causes and development of diseases

General and Systemic

pathology is divided into two branches: _________ and ______

Light Microscope

critical instrument in pathology

Rudolph Virchow

father of modern pathology

Hypoxia

oxygen deficiency

Ischemia

reduced blood supply

Toxins

include air pollutants, insecticides, CO, asbestos, cigarette smoke, ethanol, and drugs

Infectious Agents

include bacteria, fungi, viruses, and protozoans

Immunological Reactions

include autoimmune reactions against one's own tisues

Genetic Abnormality

include things like down syndrome

Nutritional Imbalances

include things like vitamin deficiencies

Physical Agents

includes things like heat and radiation trauma

Aging

cellular senescence result to a detrimental ability of cells to respond to stress leading to death

Necrosis and Apoptosis

two major pathways of cell death

Reversible Cell Injury

refers to cell injury at which the deranged function and morphology of the injured cells can return to normal if the damaging stimulus is removed

Cellular Swelling and Fatty Change

two main morphological correlates of reversible cell injury are _______ and _________

Myelin Figures

collections of phospholipids resembling myelin sheaths that are derived from damaged cellular membranes

Necrosis

in reversible injury, if the injurious stimulus is not removed it will result in which type of cell death?

Hypertrophy, Hyperplasia, Atrophy, and Metaplasia

adaptive responses to physiological stresses or pathologic strimuli

Plasia

formation, growth

Hyperplasia

increase in cell number

Metaplasia

a substitution of one normal cell or tissue type for another

Change

the -trophy suffix means ________

Atrophy

decrease in size of the cell

Autophagy

starved cells eat their own cellular components in an attempt to survive, known as ___________

Swell and Shrink

during necrosis the cell size would ________ while apoptosis would

False

T/F: like necrosis, apoptosis has frequent adjacent inflammation

Mitochondrial Death, Intracellular Sodium, and Lysosomal Autodigestion

three indisputable irreversible changes

Calcium Homeostasis, DNA Damage, Protein Misfolding, Membrane Damage, and ATP Generation

five examples of reversible injury

Mechanism

therapies that target individual mechanisms of cell injury may not be effective because it is difficult to assign one ______ to a particular insult

Free Radicals

naturally occurring, highly reactive chemicals that form in the presence of oxygen

Nucleic Acid, Cellular Proteins, and Lipids

free radicals in the cell avidly attack __________

Spontaneous Decay and Enzymes

two ways that reactive oxygen species (ROS) are removed

Ionic and Fluid Homeostasis

cellular swelling and fatty change lead to the inability of a cell to maintain __________

Hypertrophy of ER

prolonged use of barbiturates leads to the reversible injury of __________ due to the hepatocytes of the liver increasing the volume of P450 activity to metabolize the drug

Not Death

the best definition of life is __________

Blood Flow

reduced ________ (blood flow/oxygen) injures tissues faster and more severely

Ischemia-Reperfusion Injury

additional injury that can be caused by restoration of blood flow and oxygen

Mercuric Chloride and Carbon Tetrachloride

two toxic chemicals

Apoptotic

_______ (apoptotic/necrotic) cell death does not elicit an inflammatory reaction in the host

Pathologic

type of apoptosis associated with necrosis

Pyknosis, Hyperchromasia, Haryorrhexis, and Dissolvation

four steps of the apoptosis sequence

Caspases

responsible for enzymatic cell death in apoptosis; proteases and endonucleases

Bcl-2 Family Proteins

regulate mitochondrial permeability and leads to caspase activation when they become imbalanced (intrinsic)

Adaptor Proteins

link signal proteins together in the death receptor pathway for apoptosis (extrinsic)

Chaperones

assist in protein folding of newly synthesized proteins

Steatosis

abnormal condition of fat (increased fat at the cellular level often affecting the liver) that is caused by toxins, protein malnutrition, diabetes mellitus, obesity, and anoxia

Lipofuscin

accumulates in tissues of the heart, liver, and brain as a function of age or atrophy and is a marker of past free radical injury

Glycogen Deposits

associated with abnormalities in the metabolism of either glucose or glycogen

Pigments and Calcium

can accumulate in the cells that are harmless by themselves but are associated with various degrees of injury

Pathologic Calcification

abnormal deposition of calcium salts together with smaller amounts of iron, magnesium, and other minerals

Dystrophic Calcification

occurs in the absence of derangements in calcium metabolism and an important cause of aortic stenosis in elderly persons

Metastatic Calcification

almost always secondary to some derangement in calcium metabolism (hyperecalcemia)

Hypercalcemia

increased parathyroid hormones, destruction of bone due to Paget disease, vitamin-D related disorders, and renal failure are major causes of ________

Hyperparathyroidism

phosphate retention leads to secondary __________, causing hypercalcemia

Replicative Senescence

cells are arrested

Cell Cycle Arrest

progressive shortening of telomeres due to telomerase degradation

Germ Cells

have sufficient levels of the enzyme to stabilize telomere length completely

Calorie Restriction

the practice of limiting dietary energy intake for the purpose of improving health and slowing down the aging process

IGF (Insulin-like Growth Factor) and TOR (Target of Rapamycin)

signaling pathways that regulate cell growth, metabolism, and longevity

Derangements

all instances of cell or organ injury and ultimately all cases of clinical disease arise from _________ in cell structure and function