Studied by 52 people
What parts of cell membrane (proteins or lipids) account for the diffusion of water soluble substances? What parts are considered pores?
Lipid Bilayer- Lipid allows fat soluble substances to pass through
Lipids- account for diffusion of water soluble substances
Proteins act as pores
What is facilitated diffusion, simple diffusion and active transport?
Facilitated diffusion- Requires a carrier/bind to happen to take place, does not need energy and goes from high concentration to low concentration
Simple Diffusion- Random movement of molecules, ions or particles
Active transport- transport substances in opposite direction, needs energy and carrier
What is the difference between semi-permeable and selectively permeable membranes?
Semi-permeable- Allows passage of water, but not solutes, by diffusion
Selectively permeable- allows passage for select solutes
Why are excess water losses more critical in young animals then adults of the same species?
A adult cow has 10 times the space to store water than a calf, but only needs 3 to 4 times greater water, when a calf losses water its more problematic because they have less water stored so dehydration occurs faster
What is the concept of isotonic/hypotonic/hypertonic in relation to the concentration within in the cell?
Isotonic- Two solutions have equal osmotic pressure
Hypotonic- Solutions have lower osmotic pressure, which leads to water entering the cell and causes swelling
Hypertonic- solutions have higher osmotic pressure, water can leave the cell and shrink
What are insensible and sensible water loss?
Insensible- non voluntary- vapor loss
Sensible- Voluntary- not subject to vapor loss, due to urination, feces and body secretions
What is water turnover? Metabolic water? and Extracellular water?
Water turnover- the amount of water a animal gains back through drinking and eating in attempt to balance the water lost
Metabolic- Chemical reactions of cellular metabolism in the mitochondria, within the cell
Extracellular- found outside the cell
Is there a proportionate loss of electrolytes with loss of water?
Electrolytes are excreted from the kidney when dehydrated, but not at the same rate of eat
For animals what is considered a severe loss of body water?
10% of their body weight
Define thirst and how its controlled?
Thirst is a conscious desire for water
Controlled by thirst cells in the hypothalamus and is stimulated by water loss
What substance gives interstitial water and the characteristics of a gel?
Hyaluronic acid, gives gel texture so it cannot lose shape
What is the average, fat and lean body percentage of water in cows? What are the 2 body water compartments?
Lean cattle- 70%
Fat cattle- 40%
Average- 60%
Compartments- Intracellular and extracellular
What are granulocytes and agranulocytes
Granulocytes- produced in bone marrow, contain lots of lysosomes and they are the first defense line
Agranulocytes- In the lymph tissue, have some lysosomes and are the production of memory cells (immune response)
What are erythrocytes and leukocytes?
Erythrocytes- Red blood cells that carry O2
Leukocytes- White blood cells that fight infection
What is bilirubin? and Thrombocytes?
Bilirubin- The waste product of expired red blood cells, the color of blood results from its presence
Thrombocytes- small, colorless cell fragments that forms clots to prevent bleeding
Which leukocyte has the longest life span and why?
Agranulocytes have the longest span (years) because of the T memory cells
The movement of neutrophils from the circulation to sites of inflammation?
When skin is broken or inflammation occurs, porosity of the endothelium is increased and neutrophils pass through and attach to the site. Their large size allows them to engulf lots of bacteria, but makes it harder to get to the site
What is the sequence of events from the time of vascular injury to the return of normal?
Separation of the endothelial cells- platelets contact damaged surface and initiate adhesion- clot retract fibrinolysis- damaged vessels return back to normal when platelet fibrin complex and cell debris is removed
What accounts for the color of blood and plasma?
Blood- saturation of hemoglobin/iron with oxygen within erythrocytes
Plasma- Color from presence of bilirubin
The five leukocytes and their functions?
Neutrophils- Granulocytes engulf and destroy
Monocytes- Granulocytes engulf and destroy
Eosinophils- Granulocytes dampen allergic reaction
Basophils- Granulocytes enhance allergic reaction
Lymphocytes- Long term immune response
The prevalence of blood cells in Basophils, RBCs, Eosinophils, Neutrophils, Monocytes, Lymphocytes and Platelets
45% RBCs, 3% Platelets, 1% Leukocytes, 0.6% Neutrophils, 0.5% Lymphocytes, 0.05% Monocytes, 0.03% Eosinophils, 0.009% Basophils
What cell accounts for the removal of about 90% of aged RBC? what are the organs where this occurs?
Mononuclear phagocyte system. Liver spleen, and bone marrow. Phagocytosis degrades the RBCs. Important to keep iron plentiful
What are methemoglobin, myoglobin, carbonmonoxyhemoglobin?
Methemoglobin- Nitrates from feed are turned into nitrates in the rumen which enter the blood stream, they have greater affinity for hemoglobin then oxygen does, so it doesnt leave the blood and animals suffocate
Myoglobin- Hemoglobin of the muscle, oxygen is held in the muscle for immediate needs, quicker response
Carbonmonoxyhemoglobin- Carbon monoxide binds with hemoglobin instead of oxygen
Where does RBC production (erythropoiesis) occur? What controls the rate of erythropoiesis?
RBC production occurs in the bone marrow. Tissue demand for oxygen controls the rate of it. Low concentrations stimulate production.
What chemical atom associated with hemoglobin binds loosely and reversibly with oxygen? How many molecules of oxygen can be transported?
Iron associated with hemoglobin binds with O2. 4 molecules of O2 can be transported with hemoglobin
Compare nucleus, a nerve and ganglion
Nucleus- group of nerve cells in the CNS
Ganglion- group of nerve cells outside the CNS
Nerve- a bundle of neuron fibers outside the CNS
What are the functions of Glial cells of the CNS?
Oligodendrocytes- Myelin sheath formation
Astrocytes-facilitate transport of blood constituents
Ependymal cells- form choroid plexus where cerebrospinal fluid is formed
Microglia- phagocytic function
Glial cells make up 50% of volume. They are support staff
What is the myelin sheath? Why do fibers within grey matter not require myelin sheath?
Myelin sheath is an insulating layer that forms around the nerves.
Fibers within grey matter does not require it because they maintain a direct association with extracellular fluid throughout
What is happening at synapse?
One way conduction which allows continuation of one neuron to the next, no gap of neurons which allows facilitation which are repeated impulses that help transmission.
Greater fatigability than neurons
What is the blood brain barrier?
Blood brain barrier limits diffusion of substances from the capillaries except for lipid soluble substances such as oxygen and CO2. Minimizes chemical influences on sensitive tissue.
What is the function of the Na+/K+ pump in creating nerve impulses?
The outward active transport of Na+ occurs at the rate faster than the inward active transport of K+, creating a negative electromagnetic charge on the inside of the membrane.
Adjoining microregions are affected and the charge is passed along
Sympathetic VS Parasympathetic nervous system VS Enteric nervous system?
Sympathetic- Associated with the body’s response to stress ( fight or flight)
Parasympathetic- Associated with homeostatic functions in absence of stress (eating and sleeping)
Enteric- Regulation of the digestive system
What is saltatory conduction?
Saltatory jumps from one node of Ranvier to the next which allows transmissions to be faster with a quick recharge of membrane potential
What is a reflex?
An automatic or unconscious response of an effector organ to a stimulus
Why does visceral pain sometimes appear to be cutaneous pain?
Caused by a convergence of cutaneous and visceral pain fibers on the same neuron path in the sensory pathway
Explain the path that light must take to enter the eye and the function of each parts involved?
Cornea- allows light into eye
Pupil- regulates how much light is let in
lens- allows focusing of near and far objects
Retina
Rods- photoreceptors for black and white
Cones- photoreceptors for color
Melanin- absorbs light
Compare the taste sensations of humans and animals and how they differ?
Human sensations include sour, bitter, salty and sweet
Animal sensations use preferences and are pleasant, unpleasant and indifferent
What are acute thirst and pica?
Acute thirst- when animal wont drink because it isnt the ideal temperature
Pica- when animals consume materials considered not edible
How taste buds work and where they are located?
Gustatory cells have small sensor which extends into the pit of the tastebud, located mostly on the tongue
Solution enters pore where impulses are transmitted to the brain to determine
What type of receptors turn energy into action potentials?
Sound, light, chemical, thermal, mechanical energy
What is a pheromone and how are they used by animals?
A chemical secreted by one animal that influences the behavior of another animal. Helps recognize nest or herd
What are the two components of the inner ear and their functions?
Vestibular portion- sensory for position and equilibrium
Cochlear- Sensory for sound
What roles does vitamin A have in vision?
Vitamin A deficiency causes night blindness which a reduction in rhodopsin molecules
What is rhodopsin?
Rhodopsin is the light sensitive portion of the rod
How does the eye adapt to increases/decreases in light?
short term is pupil dilation
long term occurs through an increase in rhodopsin concentration in the rods
Explain monocular vs binocular with the concept of predators and herbivores?
Predators have binocular vision, better depth perception, both eyes send message to brain
Herbivores have monocular vision, eyes located on the sides of their heads so they can see predators better
What is the conjunctival membrane and how can it be used to determine animal health?
Observation of mucous membrane color indicates animal health
-Pink is normal and healthy
-White is anemic
-Blue is hypoxic (lack of oxygen)
-yellow is icteric (jaundice)
How does a drop of blood flow through the heart?
Right atrium- right ventricle- pulmonary trunk
-pulmonary arteries- capillary bed- pulmonary veins
-left atrium- left ventricle- ascending aorta
Compare systemic and pulmonary circulation?
Systemic- Carries blood returned from lungs to all areas of the body, from the left ventricle
Pulmonary- Circulates blood through lungs, from the right ventricle
Describe the events of cardiac cycle?
AV valves open
Ventricles receive blood
Atria contract and empty
Ventricles begin to contraction and close
Atria relax and begin to fill
Ventricular pressure increases
Semilunar valves open
Blood ejection begins from ventricle through semilunar valves
Ventricles relaxation
Semilunar valve close, AV valves still closed
What are the functions of the lymphatic system?
The return of protein and solutes from the blood capillaries back to systemic circulation
Systolic vs Diastolic?
Systolic- Highest point of arterial pressure
Diastolic- Lowest point of arterial pressure
What occurs when you hear the “Lub” and “Dub” sound?
Lub- ventricles contract, AV valve close
Dub- ventricles relax, aortic and pulmonary valve close
What is the spleen and its functions?
Iron storage, blood reservoir, Collection of old red blood cells, filter blood
Largest lymphoid organ
How is blood flow autoregulated?
Blood flow is controlled based of the amount of oxygen being relieved by tissue
Decreased oxygen levels stimulate the vessels to dilate and increase blood flow to replenish O2 levels
Is blood flow to body parts constant regardless of their needs?
The dilation/constriction of blood vessels based on O2 needs prevents constant blood flow to the body
Why does blood flow continuously rather then intermittently?
continuous flow occurs as arteries dilate temporarily to allow increased flow
The elasticity prevents a rush to dry spell, this provides steady flow with a pulse
Distinguish between diffusion of lipid-soluble and lipid-insoluble substances?
Lipid soluble solutes include oxygen and carbon dioxide which diffuse freely through lipid portion of capillary membranes
Lipid insoluble solutes include electrolytes and glucose which diffuse through pores
Lymph nodes then help put solutes back to circulation
What are the mechanical activities associated with inspiration? What are the mechanical activities involved in expiration?
Inspiration requires enlargement of the the thorax- contraction of diaphragm
Active expiration occurs when impediments to the outflow of air and extra effort is required to exhale
What is the approximate percentages of gases of the atmosphere?
79% Nitrogen, 21% oxygen, 0.03% carbon dioxide
Differentiate between abdominal and costal breathing? When is either accentuated?
Abdominal- Movement of the abdomen ]
Costal- Movement of ribs
Pain in one area causes opposite type of breathing
Where does most of the diffusion of gas between air and blood occur?
Pulmonary Alveoli
How does hydrogen ion concentration influence ventilation?
An increase in level CO2, an increase in hydrogen ion concentration, decrease O2 concentration
Where are the receptors located for the detection of oxygen lack?
Located in the aortic arch, outside heart and in the brain
What is the moving mucous blanket and its rate of moving mucous and combined particles?
A constantly moving fluid leaving the lungs at the rate 15mm per minute. Helps provide outward flow and unwanted dust and debris
What are the mechanisms of alveolar clearance?
Bacteria captured in the alveoli may be:
Phagocytized by macrophage
Transported to lymph nodes
Dissolved in blood or sequestered
What are the three humoral factors that influence ventilation?
Increased presence of carbon dioxide causes alveolar ventilation to increase and vice versa.
Increased hydrogen ion causes alveolar ventilation to increase and vice versa.
Increased oxygen causes alveolar ventilation to decrease and vice versa.
Where are the receptors located for the detection of oxygen lack?
The chemoreceptors can be found in the Carotid and Aortic bodies.
The Mechanoreceptors can be found in the airways of the Trachea, Lungs and Pulmonary vessels.
Describe the location of the kidneys, and the anatomical differences from the internal organs?
They are separated from abdominal cavity by their envelopment of peritoneum
The renal arteries arise directly from the aorta and the renal vein empties directly into the caudal vena cava
How does urination start and stop?
The external sphincter is contracted to prevent urine from escaping the bladder, which is controlled by the contraction of elastic parts in the neck of the bladder.
When urine is released from the bladder, the sphincter muscles relax/open and the bladder muscles contract to allow urine to escape.
Where are the adrenal glands located?
At the top of the kidney
What is the function of the juxtaglomerular apparatus?
Regulating blood flow, filtration and secretion of renin (precursor enzyme for angiotensin a vasoconstrictor) by the kidneys.
Explain kidney blood flow and tubular fluid flow within the nephron
After removal of the filtered part of plasma at the glomerulus, the remaining blood that enters the efferent arteriole is distributed by the peritubular capillaries to the nephron. The fraction of plasma filtered at the glomerulus enters Bowman's capsule as a glomerular filtrate. It continues through the nephron tubules and ducts as tubular fluid. The tubular fluid is subjected to reabsorption and secretion and enters the renal pelvis as urine, and it then excreted by the bladder by micturition.
Where does antidiuretic hormone have its effect?
Its endocrine hormone->Antidiuretic hormone controls permeability, it does its thing at the inner medullary collecting ducts, this ADH comes from the posterior pituitary gland.
What does alcohol consumption do to hydration and how does this occur?
Alcohol inhibits ADH secretion which decreases water reabsorption and increases urination
Where are the receptors located that respond to blood volume changes ?
In the left atrium of the heart where the fill rate is noticed, this is important in the left because this is coming from the lungs
Explain the rehydration process involving the hypothalamus , posterior pituitary and kidneys?
Hypothalamus osmoreceptors respond to effective osmotic pressure when cells detect increased plasma they stimulate the posterior pituitary to secrete ADH and inversely when less plasma is detected they secrete less. ADH is circulated by the kidneys' tubules where water permeability takes place. Thirst sensations take place in the hypothalamus.
What is the function of the countercurrent mechanism within the nephron?
A system in which transport between inflow and outflow is passive. Vasa recta and loops of henle's fluid flow in the opposite direction from each-other. Solute concentration in the plasma ends up being at good levels. Then solutes return to the plasma. Hormones are what controls rates and volumes.
What is the difference between plasma, glomerular filtrate, tubular fluid, are urine?
Plasma - is a part of blood, pre filtration levels
Glomerular filtrate - is ultrafiltrate of plasma and appears in bowmans capsule where maximum absorption from plasma happens and the highest concentration of solutes in tubules. (all the stuff in blood dumped here)
Tubular fluid - glomerular filtrate transition to tubular fluid when it enters the nephron tubules. reabsorption happens here.
Urine - tubular fluid becomes urine when it enters the renal pelvis. In horses mucus is added but for other creatures there is no changes
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