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culture region
a collection of discrete behavioural norms and cognitions shared by people within a population that are distinct from those in another population
Cultural behaviour difference example
Handshake in Western countries vs. bow in south asia
What do participants look like in most psychological studies?
Female, North American, Psychology, Undergraduate students
What is wrong with the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology?
92% written by North American authors, 96% of participants are from Western, industrialized countries
Why is it a problem to draw conclusions from Western, Educatated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic populations?
Because only 12% of humans fit the criteria and has limited are understanding of human cognition and behaviour more broadly
Muller-Lyer Illusion
illusion of line length that is distorted by inward-turning or outward-turning corners on the ends of the lines, causing lines of equal length to appear to be different
What are the findings of Muller-Lyer Illusion?
People that don't live around man-built corners can distinguish the lengths of the lines better than people who do live around man-built corners
What does Cultural Psychology allow us to do? (4)
1. Test cross-cultural generality of a theory
2. Discover human universals
3. Discover relationship between culture and mind
4. Discover unique psychological experiences or phenomena in a culture
What does culture influence? (3)
Conceptualization of the self, perceptions of the world, preferences
Question of Cross-cultural generality
Is our theory or observation true in all cultures?
Self concepts (2)
independent self-concept, interdependent self-concept
independent self-concept (prevalent in...)
is encouraged in high individualism cultures (USA/Canada)
independent self-concept
an individual's perception of self as entirely independent from others. feel unique and autonomous, even in close relations to others
interdependent self-concept (prevalence)
is encouraged in cultures high in Collectivism. (default in east asia)
interdependent self-concept
an individual's perception of self as fundamentally connected to others. salient traits and preferences depend on the context and who is around you.
Analytic thinking
a type of thinking in which people focus on the properties of objects without considering their surrounding context
Two types of thinking
analytic thinking, and holistic thinking
What type of thinking is common in Western Cultures?
Analytic thinking
holistic thinking
a type of thinking in which people focus on the overall context, particularly the way in which things relate
what type of thinking is common in Eastern Cultures? (Japan, China, Korea)
holistic thinking
WEIRD
Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic
Analytic thinking is parallel to...
individual self-concept
holistic thinking is parallel to...
interdependent self-concept
Example of how different cultures perceive
Physics student entered academic competition and lost, unsuccessfully appealed, did not get academic job. Came back and shot advisor.
Two journals analyzed (leading chinese vs. leading english)
chinese journal = more situational attributions (access to guns...)
english journal = more dispositional attributions (angry and disturbed guy)
What preferences does culture shape?
Ideal mood, individual uniqueness
Preference for uniqueness differences
Independent culture (Western): uniqueness valued
Interdependent culture (Eastern): conformity values
Study for preference for uniqueness
North American and East Asian participants select between common vs. uncommon items
At airport, asked ps to pick between 5 orange or green pens
North American: picked pens that were more uncommon
East Asian: picked pens that are more common
What ideal mood is found in East Asia?
Positive affect, low arousal (calm)
Affective Valuation Theory (AVT)
A theory that looks at the way affective ideals across cultures manifest in everyday lives
AVT findings (music, drug use, children's books, religion)
Top hits:
- East Asia: calm music
-Western: high arousal music
Drug Use:
-East Asia: calming drugs
-Western: uppers
Children's books:
-East Asia: calming books
-Western: exciting arousal
Religion:
-East Asia: prefer calmness, serenity, tearfulness
-Western: excitement, enthusiasm, elation
what ideal mood is in Western cultures?
positive affect, high arousal (excited)
Types of Aggression
instrumental and hostile
Aggression
intentional behavior aimed at causing physical harm or psychological pain to another person
Hostile aggression
inflicting mental or psychological pain on someone else is the main goal
instrumental aggression
inflicting pain on someone else is a means to an end
how are hostile and instrumental aggression distinguished
the goal of the behaviour
Types of causes of aggression
situational, individual differences
Causes of Hostile aggression - Columbine
social exclusion, modeling (violent media), poverty, access to guns
Situational causes of hostile aggression
social learning, media, income inequality, social exclusion, aggressive objects, frustration, heat & colour
Social Learning
children copy adult behaviour. seeing aggressive behaviour leads others to copy, especially when the aggressive behaviour is rewarded
How is aggressive behaviour rewarded?
Sports (crowds cheer for fights, rough players get more play time)
Office (cut throat behaviour leads to raise)
Social Learning Theory
Bandura's version of learning theory, which emphasizes the role of modeling, or observational learning, in behavior. (Bobo doll experiment)
Bobo doll experiment
nursery school students observed an adult play aggressively (yelling & hitting) with an inflatable clown (Bobo); when children were later allowed to play with the Bobo, those children who witnesses the Bobo doll performed the same aggressive actions and improvised new ways of playing aggressively
media influences on aggression (correlational research)
Anderson & Dill, 2000: report a correlation of time playing violent games and aggression delinquent behaviour = .46
Could be because...
-direction of causality issue, 3rd variable
Anderson & Dill Study 2: Experiment on media aggression
Randomly assigned students to play a video games 3 times over a week (violent video game or equally engaging nonviolent game)
They then played a competitive game with another student.
DV: level/duration of noise blast given to opponent
found: people who played violent video game administered higher level and longer duration of noise
Meta-analysis of media aggression
Found:
increased aggression, aggressive thoughts, anger, arousal, decreased helping
same effects for males and females, children and adults
How does poverty increase aggression?
It's about how much you have relative to others nearby (income inequality)
Income equality evidence
Greater income inequality -> more homicide
Canada < US -> may explain homicide difference
Explanation for income inequality causing aggression
Evolution - intense competition for resources
Social Exclusion
humans are social creatures - it hurts a lot when we are excluded
Social Exclusion Experiment
(Twenge et al, 2001)
Method: participants randomly assigned to groups (either everyone chooses you or no one does)
Next task: opportunity to deliver white noise to stranger
Results: excluded - delivered louder and longer white noise bursts to a new stranger (not one who excluded)
Aggressive objects experiment
participants brought into lab and made angry and aloud to administer shocks to another person
either on the presence of a gun or badminton racket
found: angry participants exposed to a gun administered longer shock duration. if participants were not angry, it did not matter what object they saw
frustration-aggression theory
the theory that frustration triggers a readiness to aggression
things that lead to frustration
goal blockage (closer to goal = more frustration)
perceived injustice
Frustration goal blockage experiment
confederate cut in line at crowded restaurants, movies. either cut in front second in line or cut in front twelfth in line. people more aggressive when confederate cut in second in line
Frustration perceived injustice experiment
Capuchin monkeys given a task and rewards
They reject rewards if they think it is unfair compared to what the other monkey is getting (cucumbers vs. grapes)
Heat causing aggression research
# of hot days predicted more violent crime
Heat causing aggression experiment
participants either completed study in hot or average room
found: people in hot room behaved more aggressively
colour causing aggression correlational research
found that sports teams with 50%+ black jerseys had highest penalty record
colour causing aggression experiment
ps randomly assigned black jerseys acted more aggressively than those randomly given white
What sex is more physically (directed) aggressive?
Men
What sex engages in more indirect (gossiping) aggression?
women
Catharsis
"blowing of steam" - releases built up aggressive energy -> reduce likelihood of aggressive behaviour. Idea came from Freud's aggressive impulses hydraulic system
Punching Bag Study
methods: read article on the (in)effectiveness of punching inanimate objects
insulted by confederate then opportunity to hit punching bag: present or absent
DV: white noise delivered
Results: people who thought catharsis worked were most aggressive (venting increases aggression)
Does catharsis work?
no/ the release of aggressive feelings actually increases the likeliness of further aggression
What reduces aggression?
Non-aggressive role models, defuse anger through apology, empathy
Empathy reducing aggression study
car at light doesn't move for 10 seconds.
2 conditions: someone walks between 1st and 2nd car, someone on crutches hobbles between 1 and 2
found: less likely to honk if someone on crutches
conformity
Adjusting one's behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.
Normative social influence (NSI)
An explanation of conformity that says we agree with the opinion of the majority because we want to be accepted, gain social approval and be liked. This may lead to compliance.
social norms
expected standards of conduct, which influence behavior
Normative social influence often leads to...
public compliance not private acceptance
Normative Social Influence study
Asch Line Study: 7 confederates and 1 participant asking people to match the size of lines
found: 76% of participants followed group despite group giving wrong answer
when are we most likely to conform (4)
when group is...
important to you, close (time and space) to you, large group, unanimous
Social Impact theory
the idea that conforming to social influence depends on the group's importance, immediacy, and the number of people in the group
Informational Social Influence
follow others to gain information
Informational Social Influence study
White dot study: participants sat in dark room and estimate how far white dot moves. Participants did it again with other people and changed estimates to accommodate guesses of other people. Participants came back again and gave answer close to group guess
When is informational social influence most likely to occur? (3)
ambiguous situations, crisis situations, when expert is present
Types of norms
injunctive; descriptive
injunctive norms
rules about how people are supposed to behave
descriptive norms
rules people actually believe
Resisting social influence (3)
be aware, find an ally, cash in your idiosyncrasy credits (credits earned from conforming to group)
Persuasion: 2 strategies
Door-in-the-face technique, foot-in-the-door technique
door-in-the-face technique
asking for a large commitment and being refused and then asking for a smaller commitment
foot-in-the-door technique
asking for a small commitment and, after gaining compliance, asking for a bigger commitment
door-in-the-face technique study
asked to chaperone 2 hour student trip - 17% agree
asked to work 2yrs unpaid - reject - then asked to chaperone = 51% agree
Reciprocity norm
you do something positive for another and the other person returns the favour
Foot-in-the-door technique study
"would you sign a petition to support safe driving" then asked "would you put a drive safe sign on your lawn"
found: people who were not asked the first question, much less likely to agree to second question
Milgrams Obedience Study
study of the phenomenon of obedience to an authority figure, examinfed the effects of punishment on learning (shock treatment for mistakes, 65% shocked dangerous amounts when ordered
In class Obedience study
writing odd and even numbers on paper and crumpling it
prejudice
preconceived opinion that is not based on reason or actual experience
ABC's of attitude
A-affective, B-behaviour, C-cognition
ABC's of prejudice
affective - prejudice
behaviour - discrimination
cognition - stereotype
Gender Bias study
Application for lab manager
IV: gender, DV: competency, likelihood of being hired, mentoring, starting salary
Found: females rate lower in competence, hire-ability, mentoring. Males given higher starting salary
social identity theory
theory in which the formation of a person's identity within a particular social group is explained by social categorization, social identity, and social comparison (us vs. them thinking)
in-group bias
the tendency to favor one's own group
in-group bias in class activity
dog vs. cat people
in-group bias study
people picked their favourite paintings.
participants liked the people that picked the same paintings as them more.
when does in-group bias start?
9 and 14 months olds prefer people who treat similar others well and treat dissimilar others poorly
Why favour in-groups? (2)
groups give us strong social identity
boosts self-esteem
out-group homogeneity
The perception that individuals in the out-group are more similar to each other (homogeneous) than they really are, as well as more similar than members of the in-group are