Security of the USSR's control over eastern Europe

What happened after WWII?

There was a political power vacuum after World War two. Stalin helped the communists win power and make sure eastern Europe followed the same policies as the Soviet Union. One-state parties were established and communism was the only legal party.

What made Khrushchev relatable for the peasants?

He was born into a poor family, receiving little formal education and joined the Bolshevik Party in 1918 and served in the Red Army during the Russian Civil War.

When did Stalin die?

March 1953

What was Krushchev’s famous campaign?

At the Communist Party International in February1956, Krushchev made a secret speech to the 20th Party Congress, denouncing Stalin as a wicked tyrant who was an enemy of the people and kept all power to himself.

It caused a sensation in the Communist Party and in the West, although Krushchev failed to mention his own role in the Stalinist terror.

What did Khrushchev do in his process of de-Stalinisation?

• He closed down Cominform

• He released thousands of political prisoners

• He pulled Soviet troops out of Austria

• He invited Marshall Tito to Moscow

• He dismissed Stalin’s former Foreign Minister Molotov

• He appeared to allow greater independence for eastern Europe

What did Khrushchev want with the West?

He wanted to pursue a policy of co-existence with the West. This resulted in a change in doctrine and the rejection of Stalinism led to a split with Communist China in 1960.

How was the Warsaw Pact affected from Khrushchev’s reign?

This aspect did not change.

Khrushchev continued Stalin’s aim to create a buffer against attack from the West using eastern Europe.

Describe the events of Poland in 1956

In the summer of 1956 demonstrators attacked the Polish police, protesting about the fact that the government had increased food prices but not wages.

53 were killed by the Polish army in riots in Poznan.

The Polish government was unable to control the demonstrators.

What was the Soviet response to the uprising in Poland in 1956

Khrushchev was alarmed so he moved troops to the Polish border.

By October 1956, Poland was becoming more stable

Wladyslaw Gomulka took charge on 20th October

Gomulka had been a popular leader of Communist resistance. He was a nationalist and disagreed with the loyal Stalinists. Khrushchev accepted Gomulka’s appointment which was a popular move in Poland,

He also agreed that the Communists would stop prosecuting members of the Catholic Church.

The Red Army moved away from the Polish border and left the Polish army and government to sort things out.

Why was the outcome of Poland in 1956 significant?

It showed how Khrushchev’s ruling marked the end of Stalinism and signaled to other countries that the USSR would tolerate a degree of independence in satellite states as long as they stayed within the Warsaw Pact.

Describe background of Hungary in 1947

Since 1947, Hungary was ruled by hardline communist Rakosi, backed by a ruthless secret police.

Indoctrination and propaganda were used to control the people.

Most Hungarians were patriotic and bitter about losing their freedom of speech. They resented the presence of Soviet troops

What happened in Hungary?

In June 1956 opponents within the communist party pressed for Rakosi’s removal. Khrushchev supported the opponents so Rakosi retired due to ‘health reasons’.

An Anti-Soviet rebellion broke out against the new Hungarian leader.

Soviet tanks invaded but were withdrawn, allowing a new government to form under well-respected Imre Nagy.

What were Nagy’s plans for Hungary?

He planned free elections, impartial courts, and restoration of farmland to private ownership.

It pressed for the total withdrawal of the Soviet army and planned to leave the Warsaw Pact.

The Hungarians hoped that President Eisenhower would support them.

How did the USSR respond to Hungary’s radical changes?

In November 1956 Soviet troops invaded and entered the capital Budapest.

Khrushchev would not tolerate a Hungarian withdrawal from the Warsaw pact.

About 3,000 Hungarians were killed and 200,000 fled to Austria.

Nagy and his fellow leaders were executed.

Khrushchev appointed Janos Kadar as the new Hungarian leader who was committed to the membership of the Warsaw pact.

Why didn’t the Western powers do anything to help Hungary in 1956?

They complained but were preoccupied with the Suez Crisis in the Middle East

What does the USSR’s reaction to Hungary show about its control over eastern Europe at the time?

It highlighted the Soviet Union’s weak grasp over its satellite countries. The need for such forces exposed how Eastern Europe was not willingly under Soviet influence. The USSR would not let a satellite state leave the Warsaw Pact because it threatened Soviet security and feared that if Hungary broke free, others would follow suit.

What was the background to the Berlin Crisis?

The crushing of the Hungarian uprising had confirmed for many people in Eastern Europe that it was impossible to fight the Communists.

To many, it seemed the only way to escape repression was to leave altogether.

Some wished to leave due to political reasons (e.g., hardline communist leader Walter Ulbricht), while others did so for economic reasons.

Standards of living fell further behind the West, and many were attracted to live in a capitalist state.

Describe the discontent in East Germany

From 1949-1961, 4 million East Germans fled to the West through Berlin.

In the 1950’s East Germans were still able to travel freely into West Berlin and travel into West Germany.

From January 1961, more than 20,000 left East Berlin for West Berlin per month. Berlin was seen as a gap in the Iron Curtain.

They were unhappy about:

• Forced collectivisation of agriculture

• End of private trading

• Shortages of consumer goods

• The freedom, wealth, and variety on offer in the West

East Germans could see just a few hundred metres away that capitalism was booming with shops full of goods. This had been deliberately done by the Western powers.

What was the ‘Brain Drain’?

This was when many of those leaving East Berlin were skilled professionals (e.g. Doctors, dentists, teachers, professors, engineers, lawyers)

Departure of young men and women — the most motivated and intelligent and the future of the new socialist state — was a concern to the USSR

The brain drain depleted the country of its best at a faster rate than it could train new professionals

This threatened the economic collapse of East Germany, which was also an embarrassment to the USSR

People fleeing from Communist rule undermined Communism

What were the growing tensions that led to the Berlin wall being built?

The USSR claimed that the USA used West Berlin as a base for espionage. Soviets argued that they needed to control movement and access into Berlin in order to combat Western espionage.

The USSR saw West Germany as a military threat — they feared another German invasion.

In the Vienna Summit in 1961, Khrushchev demanded Western forces leave West Berlin but Kennedy refused, guaranteed West Berlin’s freedom and increase US defense spending by $3.5 billion in July 1961.

Describe the events of the Berlin wall being built

In August 1961, Khrushchev closed the border between East and West Berlin and built a barbed-wire barrier at 2 in the morning. This ended all free movement.

East German police placed barbed wire along the 50km line dividing the two sections, and a concrete wall was completed by the next day

All crossing points were sealed except for one, which was known as Checkpoint Charlie

Hundreds were killed as they tried to cross the wall over the following decades.

The West was taken by surprise but did nothing to stop the building of the wall.

The building of the wall was initially regarded as a propaganda success, but it soon became a propaganda disaster and a symbol of everything bad about the USSR's control.

Why were the Czechoslovakians unhappy during the 1960’s?

The Czechoslovakian economy was in rapid decline which led to a fall in the standard of living.

The USSR was stripping Czechoslovakia of many of its raw materials like steel for use in the Soviet economy. This was depriving the Czechoslovakian economy and inhibiting its growth.

Czechoslovakian economy was also banned from producing consumer goods

What reforms did Novotny introduce to Czechoslovakia? What were the results?

By 1962-1963, the national income had fallen significantly.

Novotny introduced the ‘New Economic Model’, which saw a surplus of expensive consumer goods and was a failure.

When and who replaced Novotny and what policy did he propose?

In 1967 Novotny was replaced by Dubcek.

He proposed a policy of ‘socialism with a human face’

• Less censorship

• More freedom of speech

• A reduction in the activities of the secret police

Dubcek was a committed communist but believed that Communism did not have to be as restrictive. He assured Brezhnev he had no intentions of pulling out of the Warsaw Pact or Comecon, unlike Hungrary.

How did Czechoslovakia reform once Dubcek came into power? What was this period known as?

As censorship eased, intellectuals were able to launch attacks on Communist leadership, pointing out corruption and uselessness.

Communist government ministers were ‘grilled’ on live television about how they were running the country and events before 1968.

This was known as the ‘Prague Spring’ as new ideas seemed to be appearing everywhere. From April to August, there was increased freedom in Czechoslovakia.

What were Dubcek’s plans for more reforms?

There were talks of another political party called the ‘Social Democratic Party’ to be set up as a rival to the Communist Party.

Dubcek spoke about ‘Democratic Socialism’ and ‘Market Socialism’

What was the USSR’s stance on the Czechoslovakian reforms?

The Soviet Union was very suspicious of the changes in Czechoslovakia. It was one of the most important countries in the Warsaw Pact as it was centrally placed and had the strongest industry.

The Soviets were worried that new ideas in Czechoslovakia might spread to other countries in eastern Europe.

How did the USSR respond to Czechoslovakia’s reforms?

Brezhnev came under pressure from the East German and Polish leaders to restrain reform in Czechoslovakia.

The USSR tried several methods

• They tried to slow down Dubcek by arguing with him

• Soviet, Polish, and East German troops performed very public training exercises on the Czech border

• It thought about imposing economic sanctions like cancelling wheat exports, but didn’t, as they thought the Czechs would appeal to the West

• In July, Dubcek agreed to not allow a new Social Democratic Party, but insisted on keeping most of his reforms. Tensions seemed to ease.

On the 20th August 1968, Soviet tanks moved into Czechoslovakia. There was little violent resistance, but many Czechs refused to cooperate with the Soviet troops.

Dubček was removed from power. His experiment had not failed, but had proved unacceptable to oher communist countries.

What were the consequences of the Prague Spring for Czechoslovakia?

• Demonstrations continued until April 1969

• Jan Palach (a student) set himself on fire in Wenceslas Square in protest against the Soviet invasion

• The Czech Communist Party was purged

• Dubcek was forced to resign, replaced by Gustav Husak.

• Dubcek was not executed but was sent to Turkey as an ambassador

Before the Soviet invasion, Czechoslovakia’s mood had been optimistic. Now it was despair. It was once pro-Soviet, but became resentful of the Soviet conncetion and ideas that could’ve reformed Communism were silenced.

What was created after the Prague Spring?

The Brezhnev Doctrine was introduced in 1968 which redefined Communism as a one-party system and declared that members had to remain a part of the Warsaw Pact.

The invasion sent out a message that USSR would suppress any attempt to relax communist control.

How was the Warsaw Pact affected during the crushing of Czechoslovakian reforms?

Some Communist countries moved away from Moscow.

Romania refused to send troops to join the forces invading Czechoslovakia and took an increasingly independent line against the Soviet Union

Albania did the same and left the Warsaw Pact for good in 1968

The USSR did not react because it was preoccupied with events in Czechoslovakia

How was the Cold War affected during the crushing of Czechoslovakian reforms?

It temporarily worsened East-West relations.

Western countries like Britain and USA protested against USSR action

The invasion ultimately did not endanger relations

The USA was in the middle of a presidential election and was preoccupied by the Vietnam war, which allowed the USSR to move into Czechoslovakia freely

Invasion did increase USSR-Chinese rivalry, as China criticized the use of force against a fellow communist nation, fearing that the USSR might take similar action against it

Describe the creation of Solidarity in Poland

In 1980, the government introduced increases in the price of meat. The people were unhappy with living standards and the government.

Workers at the Gdansk shipyard, led by Lech Walsea put forward 21 demands to the government:

• Free trade unions

• Right to strike

• More pay

• End to censorship

• Broadcasting of Catholic church services

• Election of factory managers

They started a free trade union called Solidarity.

Describe the growth of Solidarity

The government agreed to all of Solidarity’s demands

In September 1980 its membership grew to 3.5 million

In October 1980 its membership was 7 million, and was officially recognised by the government

By January 1981, it rose to its peak at 9.4 million, which was more than a third of all the workers in Poland

Why did Poland’s strong industry lead to Solidarity’s success?

A general strike would’ve been able to devastate Poland’s economy as the industries were most important to the government

Why was the fact that Solidarity wasn’t seen as an alternative to the Communist Party contribute to Solidarity’s success?

More than one million members joined the Communist Party

Why did Walesea’s leadership lead to Solidarity’s success?

He was careful with his leadership and negotiations to avoid provoking a dispute that might cause the Soviet Union to be involved

Why did Solidarity’s popularity lead to Solidarity’s success?

Almost half of all workers were a part of it

Why did the Catholic church lead to Solidarity’s success?

Solidarity had support of the Catholic church, which was very strong in Poland

Why did the government’s actions lead to Solidarity’s success?

The Government was playing for time, hoping that Solidarity would break into rival factions whilst it drew up plans for martial law.

Why did the USSR lead to Solidarity’s success?

Solidarity had gained support in the West that neither Hungary or Czechoslovakia had. Walesa was well known in Western media and people in the West bought badges to support.

The scale of the movement made the Soviet Union treat the Polish crisis cautiously

Describe Martial law in Poland

In February 1981, the civilian prime minister resigned, and the army's leader, General Jaruzelski, took over.

Jaruzelski and Walesa negotiated to form a government of national understanding but that broke down in December.

After nine months of tense relationships, Brezhnev ordered the Red Army to carry out ‘training manoeuvres’ on the Polish border.

Jaruzelski introduced martial law, putting Walesa and 10,000 other Solidarity leaders in prison, crushing it.

What were the reasons for the crushing of Solidarity?

1. Solidarity was acting as a political party. The government declared it had secret tapes of a Solidarity meeting setting up a new provisional government without the Communist Party

2. Poland was going chaotic. Rationing had been introduced in 1981, and wages increased by less than inflation, and unemployment was rising

3. Solidarity split into different factions, with some believing the only way to progress was to push the communists until they cracked under pressure. Strikes continued long after the Solidarity leadership had ordered them to stop

Why was Solidarity significant?

It highlighted the failure of communism to provide good living standards and undermined communism’s claim to be a system that benefited ordinary people

It highlighted inefficiency and corruption

It showed that there were organizations able to resist a communist government

It showed that communist governments could be threatened by ‘people power’.

It highlighted the nature of Soviet control and that the only thing that kept them in power was force.

What did Gorbachev believe in?

The realist in him saw that the USSR was in a terrible state, and was spending too much money on the arms race, in an unwinnable war in Afghanistan.

The idealist in him believed that communist rule should make life better for the people of communism. He was offended that goods made in Soviet factories were shoddy, and living standards were higher in the West

The optimist in Gorbachev believed that a reformed system could give people pride. He did not intend to dismantle communism, but wanted to reform it radically.

What were Gorbachev’s two messages?

“We won’t intervene”

• He made it clear that countries of eastern Europe were responsible for themselves. Some did not believe him.

“You have to reform”

• He believed that the communist system could provide better healthcare, education, and transport.

What reforms did Gorbachev introduce?

Glasnost: he was open for open debate on government policy

Perestroika (1987): allowed market forces to be introduced into the Soviet economy. For the first time in 60 years it was no longer illegal to buy and sell for profit.

He reduced defence spending, and after almost 50 years, the Red Army began to shrink

He improved international relations and withdrew Soviet troops from Afghanistan. In his speeches he talked about international trust and cooperation.

How did Reagan’s relationship with Gorbachev improve relations?

Reagan’s get tough attitude helped Gorbachev.

It was clear that the USSR could not compete with American military spending, which helped Gorbachev push through his military spending cuts.

Reagan got on well with Gorbachev, and the USSR felt less threatened by the USA so there was less need for the USSR to control eastern Europe.

Gorbachev’s speech

The demand rose for similar reforms in eastern European states after Gorbachev’s reforms.

In July 1988 Gorbachev made a speech that planned to withdraw large number of troops, tanks, and aircrafts from eastern Europe.

In March 1989 he made it clear the the Red Army would not intervene to prop up communist regimes in eastern Europe.

Describe the events of the collapse of communism in eastern Europe

May 1989: Hungary dismantles barbed-wire fence with Austria — first crack in the Iron Curtain

June 1989: Poland: first free elections since WW2; Solidarity wins; Lech Wałęsa becomes first non-communist leader

Sept 1989: Thousands of East Germans flee through Hungary/Austria to West Germany

Oct 1989: Mass protests in East Germany; Gorbachev refuses to send Soviet tanks — unlike 1956

Nov 1989: Berlin Wall falls — guards join crowds; Czechoslovakia opens borders

Dec 1989: Romania: bloody revolution; Ceaușescu executed

Mar 1990: Latvia leads Baltic republics in declaring independence from USSR

Gorbachev's refusal to intervene (unlike Khrushchev in 1956) was decisive in allowing collapse to spread.

Why did Gorbachev lead to the collapse of the USSR?

• His policy of glasnost (openness) allowed public criticism of the Soviet government for the first time — this directly unleashed popular unrest

• Perestroika (restructuring) weakened the command economy without replacing it, causing shortages and discontent

• He refused to send tanks into Eastern Europe (unlike 1956 Hungary) — without Soviet military backing, communist governments simply collapsed

• He allowed the 1989 elections in Poland that brought Solidarity to power — a deliberate political choice

• Without his decisions, the structures of repression were still in place and could have crushed dissent

Why did people power lead to the collapse of the USSR?

• Mass protests in East Germany (Oct–Nov 1989) directly forced the opening of the Berlin Wall — guards were physically overwhelmed by crowds

• Solidarity in Poland had been organising and resisting since 1980 — popular opposition predated Gorbachev

• The Baltic states (Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia) independently declared independence despite Soviet pressure

• Romania's revolution was entirely internally driven — Ceaușescu was overthrown and executed by his own people

• Economic discontent and ethnic nationalism across Soviet republics created pressure no leader could fully control

Which factor contributed to the collapse of the USSR more? Gorbachev or people power?

• Gorbachev is the stronger argument because people power had existed for decades (Hungary 1956, Prague Spring 1968) and was suppressed — what changed was his decision not to intervene

• He effectively removed the safety mechanism that had kept the USSR together

• However, people power provided the momentum that made collapse irreversible once the door was opened — neither factor works alone

• Conclusion: Gorbachev created the conditions; people power exploited them. Gorbachev is the more decisive cause because without his policy changes, popular resistance would likely have been crushed as before.