H9 theries of social development

erogenous zones

in Freud’s theory, areas of the body that become erotically sensitive in successive stages of development

id

in psychoanalytic theory, the earliest and most primitive personality structure. It is unconscious and operates with the goal of seeking pleasure

oral stage

in psychoanalytic theory, the earliest and most primitive personality structure. It is unconscious and operates with the goal of seeking pleasure

ego

in psychoanalytic theory, the second personality structure to develop. It is the rational, logical, problem-solving component of personality

anal stage

the second stage in Freud’s theory, lasting from the second year through the third year, in which the primary source of pleasure comes from defecation

phallic stage

the third stage in Freud’s theory, lasting from age 3 to age 6, in which sexual pleasure is focused on the genitalia

superego

in psychoanalytic theory, the third personality structure, consisting of internalized moral standards

latency period

the fourth stage in Freud’s theory, lasting from age 6 to age 12, in which sexual energy gets channeled into socially acceptable activities

genital stage

the final stage in Freud’s theory, beginning in adolescence, in which sexual maturation is complete

intermittent reinforcement

inconsistent response to a behavior; for example, sometimes punishing unacceptable behaviors, and other times ignoring it

behavior modification

a form of therapy based on principles of operant conditioning in which reinforcement contingencies are changed to encourage more adaptive behavior

vicarious reinforcement

observing someone else receive a reward or punishment

reciprocal determinsm

child–environment influences operate in both directions; children are both affected by and influence aspects of their environment

self-socialization

the idea that children play a very active role in their own socialization through their activity preferences, friendship choices, and so on

role taking

being aware of the perspective of another person

hostile attributional bias

in Dodge’s theory, the tendency to assume that other people’s ambiguous actions stem from hostile intent

achievement motivation

refers to whether children are motivated by competence or by others’ views of their success

entity/helpless orientation

a tendency to attribute success and failure to enduring aspects of the self and to give up in the face of failure

incremental/mastery orientation

a general tendency to attribute success and failure to the amount of effort expended and to persist in the face of failure

entity theory

(or fixed mindset) a theory that a person’s level of intelligence is fixed and unchangeable

incremental theory

(or growth mindset) a theory that a person’s intelligence can grow as a function of experience

ehtology

the study of the evolutionary bases of behavior

imprinting

a form of learning in which the newborns of some species become attached to and follow adult members of the species

parental-investment theory

a theory that stresses the evolutionary basis of many aspects of parental behavior that benefit their offspring

microsystem

the immediate environment that an individual child experiences and participates in

mesosystem

the interconnections among immediate, or microsystem, settings

exosystem

environmental settings that a child does not directly experience but that can affect the child indirectly

macrosystem

the larger cultural and social context within which the other systems are embedded

chronosytem

historical changes that influence the other systems

attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

a syndrome that involves difficulty in sustaining attention