Chapter 4: Social and Emotional Development in Infants and Toddlers

Autonomy

Freedom to control oneself and one's actions

Sense of self

Awareness of being separate from others

Development of Self-Recognition

Mirror test (rouge test): Red mark on infant's nose to observe self-recognition

Age-related changes in self-recognition

6-12 months: Shows social interest in mirror image as potential playmate; 12-18 months: Shows wariness or confusion; 18-24 months: Recognizes self by touching nose with mark

Cultural influences

Self-recognition develops differently based on experiences with mirrors and other tests of body awareness

Gender identity

Psychological sense of gender that begins to develop early

Gender socialization

Process of learning gender roles and expectations

Key factors in gender socialization

Starts before birth (clothing choices, room decor); Reinforced by caregiver behaviors toward infants; Influenced by toy choices and play opportunities; Shaped by media representations

Temperament

Innate biological components of individuality present from birth

Personality

Patterns of behavior, attitudes, thoughts, and emotions that develop over time

Relationship between temperament and personality

Temperament serves as building blocks for personality

Stability of temperament

Temperamental traits show considerable stability across infancy and childhood

Thomas & Chess: Nine Temperament Traits

Activity level, rhythmicity, approach/withdrawal, adaptability, intensity, mood, persistence, distractibility, sensory threshold

Three temperament clusters

Easy/Resilient: Adaptable, positive mood (40%); Difficult/Undercontrolled: Irregular routines, intense reactions (10%); Slow-to-warm-up/Inhibited: Cautious, withdrawn with novelty (15%)

Rothbart's Temperament Model

Three dimensions: Surgency/Extraversion, Negative Affectivity, Effortful Control. Influenced by genetics, brain development, experiences. Stability increases as infants develop.

Surgency/Extraversion

Activity level, sociability, impulsivity.

Negative Affectivity

Distress, fear, frustration.

Effortful Control

Attention focusing, inhibitory control.

Goodness of Fit

Match between child's temperament and environment.

High goodness of fit

Child's temperament matches environmental expectations, leading to positive development outcomes.

Low goodness of fit

Mismatch between temperament and environment, which can create stress and challenges.

Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 year)

Developing trust when needs are consistently met; forms foundation for security and confidence.

Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1-3 years)

Learning independence through trying new skills; developing confidence in abilities.

Emotion

Temporary affective state influencing physiology, facial expressions, and motivations.

Mood

Long-lasting disposition of arousal and pleasure.

Primary emotions (first year)

Joy, sadness, fear, anger, disgust, surprise; present across cultures with distinct facial expressions.

Secondary emotions (18+ months)

Pride, embarrassment, guilt, shame, jealousy, empathy; require sense of self and social awareness.

Development of emotions

Birth: Two states - pleasure and displeasure; 3-5 months: More distinct expression of joy; 6-8 months: More distinct expression of distress.

Example of joy expression

When 10-month-old Elijah sees his favorite toy, his face lights up with a smile, demonstrating the full expression of joy.

Example of pride expression

When 22-month-old Leo successfully builds a block tower, he demonstrates pride by smiling and clapping for himself.

Emotion regulation

Ability to manage emotional states

Emotional Regulation Development (0-3 months)

Dependent on caregiver for regulation

Emotional Regulation Development (3-6 months)

Self-soothing behaviors (sucking, looking away)

Emotional Regulation Development (6-12 months)

Attentional distraction (moving toward/away)

Emotional Regulation Development (12-24 months)

Seeking comfort, independent strategies emerge

Example of Emotion Regulation Development

When frustrated by a toy she can't operate, 14-month-old Ava first tries to solve the problem herself, then looks to her caregiver, points at the toy, and makes a distressed sound - showing her developing ability to seek help with emotional regulation.

Attentional distraction

Looking away from distressing stimuli

Self-soothing

Sucking, rubbing blanket or hair

Attention-seeking

Crying, reaching for caregiver

Escape behaviors

Running away, hiding

Cultural variations

Different strategies emphasized across cultures

Example of Emotion Regulation Strategies

When upset, 18-month-old Dylan reaches for his soft blanket and rubs it against his cheek while sucking his thumb. This combination of self-soothing strategies helps him regulate his emotional state without adult intervention.

Social Development Milestones (Birth-2 months)

Preference for faces, social smiles begin

Social Development Milestones (2-4 months)

Involuntary imitation, cooing in response to others

Social Development Milestones (6-9 months)

Stranger anxiety, social referencing begins

Social Development Milestones (9-12 months)

Voluntary imitation, joint attention

Social Development Milestones (12-24 months)

Social referencing, developing relationships with multiple people

Example of Social Referencing

Nine-month-old Maya sees an unfamiliar toy that makes loud noises. Before touching it, she looks at her mother's face. When she sees her mother smiling encouragingly, Maya reaches for the toy - demonstrating social referencing.

Attachment

Emotional bond between infant and caregiver

Historical roots of Attachment

Harlow's monkey studies: Contact comfort more important than feeding; Bowlby: Biological and cognitive components of attachment; Ainsworth: Patterns of attachment behavior

Example of Secure Attachment

When his mother leaves the room, 14-month-old Carlos becomes distressed, following her to the door and crying. When she returns, he immediately seeks her comfort but is quickly soothed and returns to playing - demonstrating secure attachment behaviors.

Stages of Attachment (Bowlby)

Pre-attachment (0-2 months): No preference for caregivers; indiscriminate social responsiveness; Attachment in the making (2-7 months): Beginning preference for familiar caregivers; stranger anxiety; Clear-cut attachment (7-24 months): Strong preference for primary caregivers; separation anxiety; Reciprocal relationship (24+ months): Understanding relationships exist even in absence.

Example of Clear-Cut Attachment

At 8 months, Zoe becomes visibly upset when her mother leaves for work, clings to her during departure, and is difficult to console - behaviors typical of the clear-cut attachment stage when separation anxiety is pronounced.

Secure attachment

Uses caregiver as secure base for exploration; Distressed during separation, happy upon reunion

Insecure avoidant

Less reliant on caregiver, minimal distress during separation

Insecure ambivalent/resistant

Clingy, extremely distressed during separation yet difficult to soothe upon reunion

Disorganized attachment

Confused or contradictory behaviors

Example of Strange Situation

In the Strange Situation, 15-month-old Emma explores the room while occasionally checking back with her mother.

Cultural variations in attachment

Differences in attachment behaviors and meanings across cultures.

Universal aspects of attachment

Common needs for attachment and the secure base phenomenon found in all cultures.

Family structure

Different configurations of families, including nuclear, single-parent, blended, intergenerational, LGBTQ+ parent families, and adoptive or foster families.

Quality of caregiving relationships

The importance of nurturing and stable interactions between caregivers and children for healthy development.

Types of childcare

Various forms of childcare including family care, nanny services, home daycare, and center-based care.

Quality indicators of childcare

Factors that determine the quality of childcare, such as low child-to-caregiver ratios and nutritious food.

Socioeconomic influences

The impact of financial and time strain on caregiver-child interactions and access to resources.

Protective factors

Elements that support positive development, such as family support networks and community resources.

Screen time recommendations

Guidelines suggesting limited or no screen time for children under 18-24 months.

Responsive caregiving

The practice of consistently meeting a child's needs to foster security and trust.

Emotion coaching

Helping children identify and express their feelings effectively.

Predictable routines

Establishing regular patterns to create a sense of security for children.

Guided exploration

Providing safe opportunities for children to explore and gain autonomy.

Cultural sensitivity

Respecting and acknowledging family values and practices in caregiving.

Financial strain

The pressure on families due to limited financial resources affecting quality care.

Time strain

The lack of time available for caregiver-child interactions due to various demands.

Food insecurity

Limited access to sufficient and nutritious food affecting child development.

Housing instability

Frequent changes in living situations that can disrupt a child's sense of security.

High-quality early intervention programs

Programs designed to provide support and resources to families for better developmental outcomes.

Childcare center quality

Indicators of high-quality childcare, such as adult-to-toddler ratios and stimulating environments.

Connection with distant family members

The potential benefits of technology in maintaining relationships with family who are not nearby.

Delayed language development

A potential negative outcome of excessive screen time on children's language skills.

Decreased caregiver responsiveness

A reduction in the ability of caregivers to respond to children's needs due to screen use.