Key Terms for Society in the Late Roman Republic

amicitia

literally friendship. In Rome this was a system of family and individual alliances established to consolidate and further the success of influential Romans.

auctoritas

literally authority, yet it is better to translate it as the prestige, influence or clout that a Roman magistrate possessed. Different from imperium, which is the official

power magistrates wielded

augur

a state religious official at Rome, who could read signs such as the flight of birds (known as 'taking the auspices'). Their interpretations were seen as either divine favour

or disapproval during major decisions of state.

boni

men considered to be ideal statesmen: well-educated, traditional, patriotic, and experienced enough in politics to accept responsibility for making good decisions for the

moral and political health of the state. (A political term used by Cicero).

clients

citizens who were bound by loyalty to a wealthy patron to support him in his public interests (e.g. voting and campaigning during elections) in return for support and resources.

cursus honorum

the political ladder of elected magistrates.

dignitas

literally dignity. It can also mean prestige. Dignitas is often associated with a Roman's accumulated social, religious, and political standing.

dominatio

a form of autocracy or despotism, which Romans loyal to the res publica loathed.

equestrians (equites)

the wealthy business class of Rome, whose influence grew through commerce and finance. Their status was symbolised by a gold finger ring and a narrow purple

stripe on their toga.

fasces

a bundle of rods and axes. These publicly symbolised the imperium (power) of senior Roman magistrates; and the magistrate's attendants (called lictors) carried them.

freedman/freedwomen

the ex-slaves who had been granted their freedom by their masters. The ritual of freeing the slave was termed manumission. Children born to freedmen were allowed to

become Roman citizens. They symbolically received a cap of freedom.

Hellenization

the process whereby Greek culture was absorbed and spread by another society. The Romans, for example, assimilated Greek rhetoric, literature, drama, architecture, and philosophy.

imperium

the official power invested in a consul (or praetor) giving him the military command of the state army. Imperium also enabled a consul to initiate legislation.

inimicitia

literally meaning enmity. This is the opposite system to amicitia, where individual disagreements could extend into significant hostility between families and Roman leaders.

libertas

a term for liberty or the political freedom of citizens. A prominent term in the late Republic.

legions

the heavy infantry units of the Roman army, each made up of around 5000 men. Traditionally, they were recruited from Roman citizens in times of war and each legionary swore an oath to the SPQR. During the late Republic they became increasingly professional and more loyal to their commanders.

magistrates

quaestor, aedile, praetor, consul, dictator, censor, and tribune of the plebs. (Except for dictator and censor), these were the annually elected magistrates of the res publica and part of the cursus honorum.

mos maiorum

literally translates as the custom of the ancestors. This was an unwritten code of social values that the Romans, (especially conservatives), believed derived from the actions of their ancestors. They believed that these ancestral values and models of behaviour should be followed within their private, political and military lives.

nobiles

a select group of senatorial families distinguished by the inclusion of a consul in their ancestry.

novus homo

literally 'new man', one who had not only managed to break into the ranks of the senate, but even to become consul, with no history of the consulship (or sometimes even senatorial rank) in his family lineage.

E.g. Cicero was a novus homo.

optimates

a group of aristocratic politicians whose energies were channelled into the conservative preservation of the political and social status quo.

patricians

aristocratic families who could trace their ancestors back to the early days of Rome when Romulus (mythical founder of Rome) chose them (the patrii = fathers) as the first 100 senators.

patron

a man of significant social standing, who was able to offer various resources (e.g. financial, legal, work or simply food) to his clients in return for loyalty and other services e.g. votes and intimidation of political opponents.

piety (pietas)

a core Roman belief where one was dutiful and respectful to the gods, your family, and your country. Part of this piety involved following the mos maiorum (the customs of the ancestors).

plebeians (plebs)

Roman citizens who were not patrician. Originally a 'lower' order, the plebeians gained significant wealth and nobility as a result of the 'Conflict of the Orders' from the 5th to the 3rd centuries BC.

Pontifex Maximus

the most influential religious office in Rome. The chief priest of the College of Pontiffs, whose members were the highest ranked priests within the res publica.

populares

ambitious aristocratic politicians who aimed to secure power through the support of the Roman people. They directly appealed to the people, especially the plebeians, with proposals and reforms aimed at improving their standards of living.

proscriptions

these were lists of Roman citizens (mostly senators and equestrians) who were officially declared as enemies of the state and so condemned to death. Sulla instigated proscriptions in 82/81 BC and the Second Triumvirate instigated proscriptions in 43 BC.

publicani

private businessmen of the equestrian class who delivered public contracts for the res publica. Their most prominent task was to collect taxes in the provinces.

res publica

literally meaning 'public affairs'; this was the term the Romans used to refer to their constitution or the state that had replaced the monarchy.

Senatus Populusque Romanus (SPQR)

the Senate and People of Rome.

senators/senate

the highest and wealthiest citizen class in Rome, who descended from established aristocratic families. About 600 senators made up the senate in the late Republic, the key advisory body of the Roman state. A senator wore a gold ring to indicate his status and he bore a broad purple band on his toga.

slaves

Rome employed a wide variety of slaves e.g. farm labourers, house slaves and gladiators. Slaves came from three key sources: wars, sold into slavery via poverty, and

being born to a slave mother within a Roman household.

stoicism

a school of philosophy, where one sought to be virtuous and moderate, regardless of what the gods made you suffer. Stoics were known for their self-control in both public and private life and for enduring pain and suffering without complaint.

E.g. Cato the Younger was a famous Roman stoic.

triumvirate

a political alliance of three leading men. In 60 BC Caesar, Pompey and Crassus formed a private alliance (the First Triumvirate). In 43 BC Antony, Octavian and Lepidus formed an official alliance (the Second Triumvirate.)

virtus

virtue, courage, or excellence a defining concept of the life of a Roman man.