Anatomy Honors Midterm

Anatomical Position

palms facing out; straight posture; face forward

Prone

on stomach lying

Supine

on back lying

Superior

toward head/above

Inferior

toward feet/below

Anterior (ventral)

in front of

Posterior (dorsal)

in back of

Medial

toward midline of a structure

Lateral

away from midline; toward the side of a structure

Proximal

toward/nearest the center of the body (torso)

Distal

away from or farther from center (torso)

Superficial

near body surface

Deep

farther away from body surface

Anatomy

study of the structure of an organism and the relationship of its parts; comes from the two Greek words meaning “a cutting up”

Physiology

study of functions of living organisms

Body Cavities

1. Ventral Cavity


1. Thoracic Cavity


1. Mediastinum (heart/trachea)
2. Pleural Cavities (lungs)
2. Separated by the Diaphragm


1. Abdominopelvic Cavity


1. Abdominal Cavity
2. Pelvic Cavity
3. Dorsal Cavity


1. Cranial Cavity (brain)
2. Spinal (Vertebral Cavity) (spinal cord)

Sagittal Cut/Section

divides the body into left and right sides

Midsagittal Planes

divides body into equal halves

Transverse Cut

upper and low sections; horizontal cut

Frontal (Coronal) Cut

front and back portions

Upper right (1)

Right hypochondriac region

Upper middle (2)

Epigastric region

Upper left (3)

Left hypochondriac region

Mid Right (4)

Right lumbar region

Mid Middle (5)

Umbilical region

Mid Left (6)

Left lumbar region

Lower Right (7)

Right iliac region

Lower Middle (8)

Hypogastric region

Lower Left (9)

Left iliac region

Homeostasis

the body’s ability to maintain a stable (balanced) internal environment

Feedback loop

basic type of control system in the body

Sensor

detects change in internal environment; sends information to the control center

Control center

evaluates information and sends signal to an effector

Effector

makes changes in the body to maintain homeostasis

Negative feedback loop

most common type; opposes change and stabilizes conditions

Positive feedback loop

uncommon; amplifies a change in the body

Glucose

simple sugar found in blood; used by cells to make energy

Insulin

hormone produced by pancreas when glucose cells are above normal

Diabetes

disease that results in too much glucose in blood

Type 1 Diabetes

Pancreas does not function; body is unable to produce insulin and it must be injected

Type 2 Diabetes

Pancreas functions but the body is resistant to insulin

Structural Levels of Organization (least to most complex)

Chemical Level

Cells

Tissue

Organ

Organ Systems

3 Ways the Body Maintains Homeostasis

Lungs (exhale CO**₂)**

Kidneys (excrete excess H+ or OH- in urine)

Buffers (chemicals in blood that neutralize H+ and OH-)

Acidosis

Blood gets below 7.35

Respiratory → poor lung function or depressed breathing results in CO**₂** not being able to be removed from the body; carbonic acid levels increase

Kidney Failure (can’t remove H+ from blood)

Severe diarrhea (loss of alkaline bicarbonate)

Can put you into a coma

Alkalosis

Blood gets above 7.45

Respiratory → too much CO2 expelled (hyperventilation/aspirin overdose)

Severe vomiting (loss of H+ ions)

pH scale

(0-14)

pH of blood

7\.35-7.45

Carbohydrates

Carbon and Water

Monosaccharide

One sugar; basic unit of carbohydrate molecules

Fructose

fruit sugar (monosaccharide)

Galactose

milk sugar (monosaccharide)

Dissacharide

Two saccharide units

Sucrose

Table sugar (disaccharide)

Lactose

Milk sugar (disaccharide)

Polysaccharide

Many saccharides joined together; storage form of energy; in plants it is starch and in humans it is glycogen (in the liver and muscles)

Protein

Made of amino acids; Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen,

Structural protein

collagen (connective - bones, cartilage, tendons, skin), keratin (waterproof - hair, skin, and nails)

Functional protein

Enzymes, hormones, antibodies, hemoglobin; shaped proteins that enable them to participate in chemical reactions in the body

Enzymes

helps reactions occur faster, has an active site and only works on one type of substrate (lock and key model)

Lipids

fats (solid) and oil (liquid); CHO

Triglycerides (3 fatty acids)

lipids for energy, protection, and insulation; most common

Saturated fats and trans fats

Unhealthy fats

Unsaturated fats

healthy fat

Phospholipids (two fatty acids)

“head” that attracts water and two fatty acid tails that repel water; creates a bilayer in cells

Cholesterol

Steroid lipid that stabilizes the cell membrane and is the starting point for making hormones

LDL Cholesterol

Low density lipoprotein; more fat than protein; bad cholesterol that builds up in arteries

HDL Cholesterol

High density lipoprotein; more protein than fat; good cholesterol; carries cholesterol away from arteries to the liver

Three Main Parts of a Cell

Nucleus

Cell Membrane

Cytoplasm

Cell Membrane

Phospholipid bilayer; semi-permeable; communication with other cells

The hands are ________ to the feet.

Superior

The knees are _______ to the waist.

Inferior

The heel is ________ to the toes.

Posterior

The biceps are ______ to the triceps.

Anterior

The arms are _____ to the midline.

Lateral

The neck is _______ to the arms.

Medial

The skin is ______ to the muscles.

Superficial

The heart is _____ to the ribs.

Deep

The hands is ______ to the elbow.

Distal

Using the maintaining of a constant temperature in a building as an example of a feedback loop, the __furnace__ would be an example of a(n):

effector

Using the maintaining of a constant temperature in a building as an example of a feedback loop, the __thermometer__ would be an example of a(n):

Sensor

After eating, blood glucose levels will ______.

Increase

Where is insulin produced?

Pancreas

What type of diabetes is more common?

Type 2

Most abundant compound in the human body

H2O

Four elements that make up the human body

Carbon

Hydrogen

Oxygen

Nitrogen

3 ways that triglycerides are beneficial to the human body

Energy storage, thermal insulation, absorption of vitamins

Cancer

A disease caused by the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in a part of the body

Albinism

Genetic condition that reduces melanin pigment

Vitiligo

The body attacks the melanocytes and causes a patchy loss of skin pigmentation.

Basal Cell Carcinoma

Most common form of skin cancer; uncontrolled growth of basal cells that are found in the outermost layer (epidermis) of the skin.

Melanoma

Begins in melanocytes and metastasizes quickly; most deadly skin cancer; look for asymmetry, border (uneven edges), color (dark or multiple shades), diameter (6 mm or dark), evolving (changing in any way).

Third-degree burns

Destroys the epidermis and dermis, nerve endings are destroyed and new skin will not grow.

Dermal papillae

Part of the skin that gives you a unique set of fingerprints

Nail body

visible part of the nail

Lunula

Half moon on nails

Dermis

What contains collagen and elastin fibers?

Stratum basale

Layer of skin that is constantly undergoing mitosis

Squamous cells

Flat cells that make up the superficial part of the epidermis

Arrector pili

Small muscles attached to the hair follicle

First-degree burn

A sunburn