development
a sustained increase in the standard of living and well-being of a level of social organization
orthodox view of development
economic growth
Link to economic liberalism/neoliberalism
Income for basic needs / GDP
Free-market system
alternative view of development
based on resistance movements in the global South and anti-capitalist and anti-globalization movements
Humanistic view
Self-reliance (not on wealthy states)
Ecological balance / global commons
Social/cultural inclusion of marginalized groups
Southern consensus = merge of economic growth and state intervention
Neomercantilist development - Asian tigers
Feminist - women for development
GDP
market value of all final goods and services produced in a country over a year regardless of who owns the factors of production
human development index (HDI)
a summary measure of long-term progress in three basic dimensions of human development:
Long & healthy life (life expectancy at birth)
Knowledge (expected years of schooling and mean years of schooling)
Decent standard of living (GNI per capita at PPP)
gini coefficient + lorenz curve
a summary of the distribution of income in an economy
The further from the ‘Line of Absolute Equality’ the Lorenz Curve is, the more unequal the distribution of income
The higher the number, the less equal the distribution of income
happy planet index
a measure of sustainable well-being that ranks countries on how efficiently they deliver long, happy lives using limited environmental resources
3 domains measured include life expectancy at birth, well-being, and ecological footprint
GNI
measures all national income of residents of a country regardless of where those FOP are located
poverty index
an international measure of acute multidimensional poverty covering 100 developing countries
Domains measured include deprivations in health, education, and living standards/basic infrastructure services
Suggested by the World Bank
SEDA - sustainable development assessment
diagnostic tool built to objectively measure a country’s sustainable economic growth and citizen well-being, covering three broad categories: sustainability, economics, and investments
Sustainability - environment, civil society, governance, and income equality
Economics - income, economic stability, employment
Investments - Infrastructure, education, health
transparency international corruption index/CPI
ranks 180 countries and territories around the world by their perceived levels of public sector corruption, scoring on a scale of 0-100
modernization theory
Structural functionalist approach
Links global stratification to cultural and technological differences
Argues that tensions between tradition and technological change are the biggest barriers to growth
Four stages to development:
Traditional Stage - small, local communities with family settings
Take-Off Stage - individual talents produce more than mere necessities to promote new markets for trade
Drive to Technological Maturity - population growth leads to reductions in absolute poverty levels, giving rise to diverse job opportunities
High Mass Consumption - when a country is big enough for production to be more about wants than needs
Criticisms
Supports idea that capitalism = only way to develop
Overlooks historical details like how slavery and resource depletion factor into development; Euro-centric
Blames less developed nations for not accepting change
dependency theory
Focus on how poor countries have been wronged by richer nations
Argue that global stratification starts with colonialism, which resulted in the exploitation of natural and human resources to funnel wealth back to the West
Global wealth not distributed well
Immanuel Wallerstein’s ‘capitalist world economy’
High-income countries = core / manufacturing base of world economy
Low-income countries = periphery (natural resources and wealth support wealthy countries)
Middle-income countries = semi-periphery w/ closer ties to core
Criticisms
The world economy is NOT a zero-sum game (one country does not get richer if the other gets poorer)
Innovation and technological growth can benefit all countries well-being
Colonialism itself cannot explain modern economic disparities
Foreign investment by richer nations helps (rather than hurts) poorer countries
Only blames capitalism, not culture or political regimes, presenting no solutions to poverty
political factors impact on development
Management Practices
Free-market capitalism
Socialism
Political Stability
Inter and intra-state conflicts → “development in reverse”
Loss of life, forced migration, disease, etc.
Disincentivises investments
UN High-Level Panel Report
International relations
economic factors impact on development
Access to capital, credit, and aid
Natural or human capital (building block to foster growth)
Microfinance and mobile banking
Aid to provide basic services (food, clothing, healthcare)
social factors impact on development
values cultures + tradition
gender matters: Expansion of capabilities, good quality human capital, family security
migration: refugees vs. economic migrants
efficacy of national + local institutions
institutional factors impact on development
The World Bank
The International Monetary Fund (IMF)
UN
environmental factors impact on development
Health & well-being
Tropical climate and disease
Nurtient-rich soil → agricultural prosperity
Coastal access decreases costs, increases connectivity
Negative impacts of climate change
Rising sea levels
Floods
Droughts → food insecurity
trade liberalization
opening of the economy to trade and investment from the outside world by eliminating or reducing barriers to international trade like tariffs and quotas
promotes free trade + increase flow of goods + services between countries
access provided to larger markets
increased inequality
job displacement
vulnerability to global economic fluctuations
export orientation
an economic strategy focused on producing goods and services primarily for export to foreign markets
boosts export revenues, enhances competitiveness in international markets, and diversification of economies
economic growth = foreign exchange earnings = attracts foreign investment
dependency on external demand = domestic markets vulnerable to ext. shocks
commodity-led growth
economic development driven by the export of primary commodities, such as agricultural products, minerals, or oil
heavy reliance on the exploitation + export of natural resources for revenues + short-term gains
price volatility, resource depletion, environmental degradation, and limited diversification of the economy
susceptible to fluctuations in global commodity markets = badly sustained long-term development.
tourism
movement of people from one place to another within or across borders
promoted by globalization, cheap transport, and blurred borders → high levels of foreign exchange (currency), investment in infrastructure, and provides revenue for airlines, telecommunications, etc.
= low-paying jobs = inhibit development.
entrepreneurship
process by which an individual or group convert an idea into a business or economic activity
econ growth: job opportunities + capital
innovation + increase in GNP + foreign currency within country
knowledge economy
knowledge and intellectual capabilities, or the “production, distribution, and use of knowledge and information”
criteria: educated workforce, sound infrastrutcure, entrepreneurship, investment in info + comm. tech, and think tanks/research institutions
circular economy
system devised to ensure that the production process allows for the recycling of materials and products
complementary currencies
accruing foreign currency reserves to promote development and permit advantageous currency manipulation