Biological Approach

Anterograde amnesia

a condition in which someone is no longer able to transfer information from short-term memory to long-term memory

Episodic knowledge

memory of events

Semantic knowledge

general knowledge about the world

Procedural memories

memories in the form of motor skills

Ablation

the removal of brain tissue

Lesioning

the scarring of brain tissue

Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)

an imaging technique that uses a magnetic field and radio waves to map the activity of hydrogen molecules, which gives a three-dimensional picture of the brain structures

Positron emission tomography (PET scanning)

an imaging technique used to observe metabolic processes in the brain by detecting the gamma rays emitted indirectly by a tracer

FDG

a radioactive tracer in the form of a modified glucose molecule

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)

an imaging technique that measures changes in blood flow in the active brain to indicate which areas of the brain are active when engaged in a behavior or cognitive process

Electroencephalography (EEG)

used to show brain activity under certain psychological states; produces a series of brain wave patterns that need to be interpreted

Computed tomography scan (CT)

a combination of x-rays and computer technology to produce axial images of the brain; used to assess head injuries and symptoms of aneurysm, stroke, and brain tumors

Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)

primarily used to view how blood flows through arteries and veins in the brain; involves a small amount of radioactive material injected into veins, which a scanner then uses to create detailed images of areas where cells have absorbed the radioactive material

Diffusion-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (dMRI)

measures the direction that water moves throughout the brain; can be used to infer the orientation of neural fiber bundles

Localization of function

the theory that specific parts of the brain are responsible for specific behaviors or cognitive processes

Distributive processing

when several parts of the brain work together in order to help us create and retrieve memories

Connectome

a map of the neural connections in the brain

Brain stem

the part of the brain responsible for regulating life functions, such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure

Cerebellum

the part of the brain that plays a key role in balance and motor function, including speech production; it also plays a role in learning, specifically in classically conditioned responses

Cerebral cortex

the largest part of the human brain; associated with higher brain functions such as thought and action

Limbic system

the part of the brain studied primarily by psychologists due to its role in role in memory and emotion

Frontal lobe

the section of the cerebral cortex associated with executive functions (planning, decision-making, and speech)

Occipital lobe

the section of the cerebral cortex associated with visual processing

Parietal lobe

the section of the cerebral cortex associated with the perception of stimuli

Temporal lobe

the section of the cerebral cortex associated with auditory processing and memory

Amygdala

the part of the limbic system that plays a role in the formation of emotional memory and fear responses

Basal ganglia

the part of the limbic system that plays a role in habit-forming and procedural memory

Hippocampus

the part of the limbic system that is responsible for the transfer of short-term memory to long-term memory

Hypothalamus

the part of the limbic system involved in homeostasis, emotion, thirst, hunger, circadian rhythms, control of the autonomic nervous system, and control of the pituitary gland

Nucleus accumbens

the part of the limbic system that plays a role in addiction and motivation

Plasticity

the brain’s ability to alter its own structure following changes within the body or in the external environment

Dendritic branching

the dendrites of the neurons grow in numbers and connect with other neurons when something new is learned

Long-term potentiation

when synapses become stronger through repeated use

Synaptic pruning

when the brain removes synapses that are no longer needed because they are not used or under-stimulated

Neuron

nerve cell

Action potential

the electrical impulse that travels along the body of the neuron

Synapse

the gap between neurons

Reuptake

the process by which neurotransmitters are reabsorbed by the terminal buttons

Acetylcholine

the neurotransmitter that plays a role in the consolidation of memory in the hippocampus

Dopamine

the neurotransmitter that controls the brain's reward and pleasure centers; plays a key role in motivation; low levels are linked to addictive behavior

Norepinephrine

the neurotransmitter that plays a role in arousal and alertness

Serotonin

the neurotransmitter that plays a role in sleep, arousal levels, and emotion

Excitatory neurotransmitters

neurotransmitters that increase the likelihood of a neuron firing by depolarizing the neuron (e.x. acetylcholine)

Inhibitory neurotransmitters

neurotransmitters that decrease the likelihood of a neuron firing by hyperpolarizing the neuron (e.x. GABA)

GABA (Gamma-aminobutyric acid)

the neurotransmitter that inhibits neural activity in the hippocampus and frontal lobe; allows for an increase in cognitive load

Agonist

a chemical that binds to postsynaptic receptor sites to produce a response

Antagonist

a chemical that binds to postsynaptic receptor sites to prevent the production of a response

Endogenous agonists

agonists that are naturally a part of the nervous system (e.x. acetylcholine for ACh receptor sites)

Exogenous agonists

agonists that are external to the nervous system (e.x. nicotine for ACh receptor sites)

Adrenaline

a hormone secreted by the adrenal glands; responsible for arousal and the "fight or flight" response; plays a role in emotional memory formation

Cortisol

a hormone secreted by the adrenal glands; helps control blood sugar levels, regulate metabolism, reduce inflammation, and assist with memory formation

Melatonin

a hormone secreted by the pineal gland; signals the relaxation and lower body temperature that help with a night of restful sleep

Neuropeptide Y

a hormone produced by the hypothalamus; acts as a neurotransmitter in the brain; stimulates food intake, reduces anxiety and stress, reduces pain perception, and affects the circadian rhythm

Oxytocin

a hormone produced by the hypothalamus and secreted by the pituitary gland; plays a role in mother-child attachment; believed to play a role in social bonding and trust between people

Testosterone

a hormone produced by the testes; plays a facilitative role in aggressive behavior

Pheromone

a chemical substance produced and released into the environment by an animal affecting the behavior or physiology of others of its own species

Primer pheromones

pheromones that cause slow, long-term physiological changes, such as hormonal effects

Signaling pheromones

pheromones that that produce rapid behavioral effects, such as mating

Diathesis–Stress model

a psychological theory that attempts to explain behavior as a predisposition to genetic vulnerability expressed as a result of stress from life experiences

Polymorphism

genetic variation

Monozygotic twins

also called identical twins; they develop from one fertilized egg, which splits and forms two embryos

Dizygotic twins

also called fraternal twins; they develop from two different fertilized eggs

Concordance rate

the probability that the same trait will be present in both members of a pair of twins

Equal environment fallacy

the assumption that twins grow up in an equal environment

Adoption studies

studies in which researchers investigate similarities between the adoptee and their biological and adoptive parents; similarity with the biological parent is potentially the result of genetic inheritance, while similarity with the adoptive parent is more likely the result of environmental factors

Association studies

studies that attempt to match a candidate gene with a specific behavior - for example, does the 5-HTT gene correlate with major depression

Family studies

studies in which researchers trace a phenotype over several generations in a family tree to determine the likelihood that a behavior is inherited

Genome-wide association studies (GWAS)

an examination of a genome-wide set of genetic variants in a large sample to see if any variations are associated with a trait

Twin studies

studies in which researchers compare behavioral traits of monozygotic (MZ or identical) twins and dizygotic (DZ or fraternal) twins to evaluate the degree of genetic and environmental influence on a specific trait

Resource holding potential (RHP)

an animal’s awareness of its own fighting capacity (i.e. ability to know that it cannot win in certain situations)

Coding information

where a code is assigned and only a small number of researchers have access to the codes