QCAA Psychology Unit 3 & 4 (Year 12, Australia, 2024)

An adapted quizlet with additional updated syllabus material from the Australian QCAA syllabus for Year 12 Psychology.

GABA (gamma-amino butyric acid)

An inhibitory neurotransmitter which regulates anxiety (calms you down).

Episodic buffer

A theoretical component of working memory that acts as both a bridge and a filter (for auditory and visual information) between long-term memory and the central executive and storage components in working memory.

Short-term memory

A store that receives information from the long-term and sensory stores; with a limited capacity of 5-9 pieces of information, and a duration of approximately 12-20 seconds.

Retrieval failure

Inability to retrieve material due to an absence of the right cues or a failure to use them.

Independent groups design

Involves randomly assigning participants to different groups, each receiving a different treatment or condition. This method helps eliminate confounding variables and allows for direct comparisons between groups, enhancing the validity of the results. Each participant is only exposed to one condition, ensuring that their responses are not influenced by other treatments.

Acetylcholine

Activates muscles to control voluntary movement, and is implicated in consolidation of memory (found in the hippocampus), learning (found to be increased after learning activities), attention, regulation of REM sleep, and low levels of this are seen in Alzheimer’s patients.

Action potential

A momentary change in the electrical potential of a cell, which allows a nerve cell to transmit a signal or impulse towards another nerve cell.

Alzheimer's disease

A progressive neurological disorder, the causes of which can be both genetic and neurological. The symptoms of this may include dementia, cognitive impairment (disorientation, confusion, reduced reasoning/judgement, unstable emotional states), and some motor coordination problems.

Axon terminal buttons

Part of a neuron located at the end of the axon, it transmits messages to the next neuron by releasing neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.

Dendrites

Part of a neuron which receives information from other neurons.

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter involved in the inhibition of unnecessary skeletomuscular movements (low levels of this neurotransmitter is found in patients with Parkinson’s). Further, it is implicated in: conditioning behaviours (learning to associate certain behaviours with pleasurable feelings, reinforcing behaviour), the pleasure reward pathway (low levels of this neurotransmitter can create an inability to feel pleasure (anhedonia)), depression, and slower cognitive abilities.

Epinephrine

A neurotransmitter which is more commonly a hormone which is linked to sympathetic nervous system activation; it increases heart rate, blood pressure and respiratory output, and it triggers a release of glucose ready to fuel the muscles, and can trigger vasodilation or vasoconstriction depending on the target organ.

Excitatory synapses

Specialised junctions between neurons that promote the transmission of signals. When an action potential reaches the presynaptic terminal, neurotransmitters (like glutamate) are released into the synaptic cleft. These neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron, leading to depolarization. This increases the likelihood of the postsynaptic neuron firing an action potential.

Glutamate

An excitatory neurotransmitter which is involved in learning and memory.

Inhibitory synapses

Type of synapse that reduces the likelihood of an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron. These synapses achieve their effect through the release of neurotransmitters that cause hyperpolarisation or decrease excitatory signals, often utilising neurotransmitters like GABA.

Myelin

A white, fatty substance that coats some axons and insulates them, protecting them from electrical interference from other neurons; this increases the efficiency of transmission of nerve impulses.

Neurotransmitters

Chemicals found in neurons which are a form of communication across synapses.

Amygdala

An almond-shaped section of the brain located deep within the temporal lobe. It plays a key role in processing emotions, particularly fear and pleasure. This section is also involved in the formation of emotional memories and helps regulate responses to emotional stimuli, influencing behaviour and decision-making.

Occipital lobe

Lobe of the brain located at the back brain, and has a primary function of processing and interpreting visual stimuli.

Phonological loop

A storage system for auditory information in the working model of memory.

Retrieval

The process of getting information back from long-term memory to be used in working memory.

Spontaneous recovery

The reappearance of an extinguished response after a rest period.

Vicarious conditioning

A learning process in psychology where an individual learns to associate a response with a stimulus by observing another person’s experiences. This occurs through social learning, where one witnesses the consequences of another's behavior, leading to the development of similar responses. For example, if a child sees a sibling rewarded for a specific behavior, the child may imitate that behavior, expecting similar rewards.

Obedience

Where an individual or group behaves in a certain way according to the orders or rules set down by a figure of authority.

Diffusion of responsibility

The idea that bystanders are less likely to take responsibility for helping in the presence of others.

Control group

The group of research participants not exposed to variations in the independent variable; the results are compared with the experimental group so that the effects of the independent variable can be determined.

Dependent variable (DV)

The property that is measured in psychological research, to look for effects of the independent variable.

Range

The difference between the highest score and the lowest score in the dataset.

Repeated measures group design

A research method where the same participants are used in all conditions of an experiment. This approach allows researchers to control for individual differences, as each participant serves as their own control.

Standard deviation

A measure that tells us how far, on average, scores are different from the mean.

Attraction

The ability to evoke interest and attention.

Equity

Equal investment in the relationship from both parties.

Camouflage

Where the Gestalt principle of figure-ground is used to 'blend' the contour of the figure (which usually stands out) against the ground (background), making it more difficult to see.

Social Identity Theory

A theory that suggests that groups are part of our identity and self-esteem. This group identity can be categorises into three processes: social categorisation, social identification and social comparison.

Affective component of the Tri-Component Model of Attitudes

How an individual feels about an person/object/thing.

Stereotype

A generalised and simplified belief about a group of people or a person based on their membership to a group. These can be positive, negative or neutral and do not have to be based on evidence.

Axon

The part of the neuron along which the electrochemical nerve impulse is transmitted.

Neurons

Nerve cells, responsible for communication within the body.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter or hormone (most commonly a neurotransmitter) which is involved in the activation of the sympathetic nervous system. Thus, creating effects such as increased heart rate, increased blood pressure and respiration rate.

Parkinson's disease

A progressive neurological condition, which can be either caused by genetic or neurological factors. Symptoms of this may include: loss of control of skeletomuscular movements in the extremities, resulting in unwanted movements such as shaking or twitches.

Postsynaptic neuron

A neuron that receives information from another neuron.

Presynaptic neuron

A neuron that transmits information to another neuron.

Serotonin

A neurotransmitter which aids in the digestion and absorption in the intestinal tract through smooth muscle contraction. This neurotransmitter is implicated in: the regulation of the sleep-wake cycle as it is a precursor to melatonin, regulation of appetite, pain and arousal. It also may be involved in the regulation of mood (low serotonin can lead to increased dopamine, and hence, increased impulse behaviours). Levels of this neurotransmitter can be changed with exercise, diet, and sunlight etc.

Synapse

The space between two neurons by which neurotransmitters are sent in order to transmit a message.

Synaptic transmission

The process of neurons sending information to each other via neurotransmitters.

Autonomic nervous system

Consists of the parasympathetic and sympathetic branches and is responsible for involuntary movement in the body (digestion, heart rate, etc.).

Basal ganglia

A structure involved in the control of movement. Specifically it mitigates unnecessary or unintentional movement in the body. This part of the brain is impacted in people with Parkinson’s disease.

Broca's area

Part of the brain located in the prefrontal cortex which is involved in the production of speech. If a person damages this area this may result in a type of aphasia in which they struggle to produce words (they still understand words and can still speak, but word production is difficult).

Central Nervous System

Comprises the brain and spinal cord; this section of the nervous system controls the body by processing and responding to sensory input from the peripheral nervous system.

Cerebellum

A crucial part of the brain that primarily coordinates voluntary movements. Its functions include: motor control (regulates balance, posture, and coordination of muscle movements), learning motor skills (involved in the acquisition and refinement of motor skills), and cognitive functions (plays a role in attention, language, and emotional regulation. Overall this structure ensures smooth and precise movements.

Cerebral cortex

The multi-layered outer surface of the cerebrum responsible for receiving information from the environment, controlling our responses, and allowing complex voluntary movements and higher order thinking processes.

Cerebrum

The part of the brain most responsible for voluntary movement and complex thought processes such as perception, imagination, judgment and decision-making.

Corpus callosum

The band of neural fibres that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres.

Fight-Flight-Freeze Response

A physiological response to stress that causes an organism to react in either a combative manner, by removing itself from the situation, or by not reacting at all.

Frontal lobe

The largest lobe of the brain; it has several functions, including initiating movement of the body, language, planning, judgment, problem-solving, aspects of personality and emotions; this part of the brain is extremely well developed in higher order mammals.

Geschwind's territory

An area located in the inferior parietal lobe that is a hub for semantics and phonetic language, and also provides a connection between Broca's area and Wernicke's area.

Hippocampus

A structure within the brain located in the medial temporal lobes; this is responsible for consolidation of explicit memories and acts to transfer these to other parts of the brain for storage as long-term memory, and interacts with the amygdala to consolidate emotionally-charged memories.

HPA Axis

A major neuroendocrine system that includes the hypothalamus, pituitary gland and adrenal gland; these structures interact through a feedback system to regulate a number of functions such as a person's digestion, immune system, mood, emotions and their responses to stress.

Hypothalamus

A structure in the forebrain that plays a major role in controlling emotion and motivated behaviours such as eating, drinking and sexual activity. It also triggers the fight-flight-freeze response when the amygdala causes us to feel fear.

Limbic system

Structure of the brain consisting of the amygdala, hypothalamus and midbrain; implicated in memory, emotion, behaviour and motivation.

Localisation of Function in the brain

Specific parts of the brain are responsible for different functions.

Monosynaptic Reflex Arc

A reflex arc made up of only two neurons (one sensory and one motor).

Motor neurons

Neurons that communicate messages from the central nervous system to the particular muscles that an organism intends to move at any particular moment; also known as efferent neurons.

Neurons

Nerve cells, responsible for communication within the body.

Parasympathetic nervous system

A branch of the autonomic nervous system, responsible for maintaining our day-to-day functioning and for most of the automatic functions of the body such as digestion, heart rate, breathing and some glandular functions.

Parietal lobe

The part of the brain located at the top of the brain between the frontal and occiptal lobes. Functions of these lobes include: that it enables a person to perceive their own body and where things are located in their immediate environment, and somatosensory input.

Peripheral nervous system

Communicates information from the body to the central nervous system (e.g. aches and pains) and to the body's organs, glands and muscles.

Polysynaptic reflex arc

A reflex arc made up of multiple neurons, with one or more interneurons connecting the sensory and motor neurons.

Prefrontal cortex (PFC)

Part of the cerebral cortex that connects brain regions that are involved in the processing and production of emotion.

Primary auditory cortex

Location in the upper part of the temporal lobe; receives sounds from the ears.

Primary motor cortex

Located at the rear of each frontal lobe; responsible for movement of the skeletal muscles of the body.

Primary somatosensory cortex

Located at the front of each parietal lobe; processes sensations such as touch, pressure, temperature and pain.

Primary visual cortex

Located in the occipital lobe; processes information from the eyes.

Reflex

Simple, automatic response to a sensory stimulus.

Sensory neurons

Neurons that carry information from the body and from the outside world into the central nervous system; also known as effector neurons.

Somatic nervous system

The division of the peripheral nervous system that carries sensory information into the central nervous system and motor commands from the central nervous system to the skeletal muscles.

Spinal cord

The bundle of nerve fibres connecting the brain with peripheral nervous system.

Sympathetic nervous system

A branch of the autonomic nervous system that activates the fight-flight-freeze response.

Temporal lobe

A part of the brain which is located near a persons ears, below the parietal lobe and between the frontal and occipital lobes. A large function of this lobe is processing and interpreting auditory stimuli.

Thalamus

Structure in the brain located between the cerebral cortex and he midbrain, just above the brain stem; responsible for relaying motor and sensory signals to the cerebral cortex.

Wernicke's area

Part of the left temporal lobe, responsible for language reception and interpretation and for creation of grammatically correct speech.

Central executive

The functional component of working memory that is responsible for switching attention from task to task, deciding what material is to be retrieved from or committed to long-term memory and for performing calculations and making linkages.

Declarative/explicit memory

A long-term memory store of personal experiences (episodic) and facts (semantic).

Echoic memory

Auditory memory in the sensory memory register.

Encoding

The process of putting information into a form that will allow it to fit with your personal storage system.

Episodic buffer

A theoretical component of working memory that acts as both a bridge and a filter (for auditory and visual information) between long-term memory and the central executive and storage components in working memory.

Episodic memory

Long-term memories of episodes or experiences in your life, these are personal memories to you. For example, your first kiss, what part you played in the school play etc.

Explicit memory

Memories of facts, names, images and events; also called declarative memories. These are memories you have to consciously retrieve.

Iconic memory

Memory of visual stimuli in your environment.

Implicit memory

Memories of skills, emotions, preferences and dispositions; also called procedural or non-declarative memories; processed in the amygdala and possibly the cerebellum. These memories do not have to be consciously retrieved.

Levels of Processing Model of Memory

A model of memory that suggests that memory comprises a continuous dimension in which memory is encoded related to the ease with which it can be retrieved: the deeper the processing of information, the greater the chance of it being retrieved. The 3 levels of processing include: structural, phonetic and semantic.

Long-term memory

Memory store that is said to have infinite capacity and duration. This is the store for all correctly encoded memory.

Maintenance rehearsal

A strategy for keeping information in short-term memory or for moving it into long-term memory by simply repeating information over and over.

Multi-Store Model of Memory

A model that suggests that memory is comprised of three memory stores: a sensory store, a short-term memory store and a long-term memory store.

Procedural memory

One aspect of implicit memory; this is the memory for how to perform particular tasks, skills or actions.

Retrieval

The process of getting information back from long-term memory to be used in working memory.

Retrieval cues

Mental reminders or prompts that we create to assist our recollection later on.

Semantic memory

Memory for facts or general knowledge (information widely known amongst the general public).

Sensory memory

A store for incoming sensory information.

Short-term memory

A store that receives information from the long-term and sensory stores; with a limited capacity of 5-9 pieces of information, and a duration of approximately 12-20 seconds.