BBL EXAM 2

dendrite

branches that receive signal

soma

cell body

mylein sheath

fatty substance that surrounds axon to speed up signal

axon

connects dendrite and synapse and sends signal

axon terminal

sends signal to post synaptic neuron

Immunity

A response to a foreign microorganism that occurs with repeated exposure and results in resistance to disease

Postsynaptic Neuron

receives signal

Presynaptic neuron

gives signal

Vaccination

Body builds up antibodies from injected pathogen

Herd immunity

-when a large population becomes immune to an infectious disease

-incidence rate goes down

-done by vaccination or previous exposure to virus

Ex: everyone is immune to chicken pox

Immune Deficiency (Immune system disorder)

immune system doesn’t properly fight off infection

AIDS (Immune system disorder)

-type of immune system disorder

-someone is infected with HIV

-HIV destroyed T-cells and Macrophages in immune system

*people with HIV can progress to having AIDS

-Treatment includes HIV drug to prevent it into AIDS

Allergies (Immune system disorder)

-responding in a way that most people don’t (disorderly way

-peanuts, cats

Autoimmune disease (Immune system disorder)

-body attacks its own immune system

Ex: lupus, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis

Diathesis Stress Model

-Diathesis + stress = development of disorder

-Diathesis=genetic predisposition

Ex: bipolar disorder, schizophrenia

-Stressor=environmental stressors

Ex: prenatal trauma, childhood trauma, life changes, family conflict, pathogen exposure

Ex: smoking cigarettes everyday + working in factory = lung cancer

Psychoneuroimmunology

-interactions between psychological factors (psycho), immune system (immunology), and nervous system (neuro)

Ader’s experiment

-classical conditioning

-trying to condition lab rats to avoid sweet-flavored water

Candace Pert’s work

-receptors for immune molecules

-receptors called neuropeptide receptors

-found we have opiate receptors in the brain which is where endorphins bind in the brain

-endorphins establish direct pathway between brain and immune system

-Discovered endogenous opiate peptides

-PAG had numerous opioid/endorphin receptor sites

Neuron

• Communicate electrically and chemically

• Membrane is selectively permeable

• Activiaton is rapid, effects are short term

Nucleus

• Contains genetic material of neuron cells

Multiple Sclerosis

Decayed myelin sheath

Synapse

Where neurotransmitters are released

Resting potential

• Neuron is not sending signals

• Maintained through unequal distribution of ions across the membrane of the neuron

• Potassium ions (K+) concentrated on the inside of neuron

• Sodium ions (Na-) concentrated on outside of neuron

Action potential

• Neuron is sending signals

Synapse

connects axon terminal and dendrites of next neuron, how message is transferred between neurons

Central Nervous System

Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system

Everything outside of brain and spinal cord

Sensory neuron

• Senses 5 senses

• Ex: sensing heat from fire

interneuron

• Sends information up to brain

• Ex: sending information from sensory receptors to brain

motor neuron

• Sends signals to muscles to move

• Ex: telling arm to move away from fire

somatic nervous system

• Voluntary action

• Ex: walking, talking, eating

autonomic nervous system

• Involuntary action

• Main neurotransmitters: acetylcholine, norepinephrine

• Ex: breathing, blinking

sympathetic nervous system

• Fight or flight response

• norepinephrine

Parasympathetic nervous system

• Rest and digest

• Acetylcholine

Endocrine System

• Consists of glands (pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, ovaries/testes)

• Made of hormones

• Activation is slower, effects last longer 

Neuroendocrine system

Controlled by and interact with nervous system

Hormones

• chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream

• Direct effect-hormone activates something in your body

• Indirect effect-hormone activates another hormone

Pituitary Gland

• Master gland

• Produces hormones that control many other glands in the body

• Controlled by hypothalamus

Thyroid

Regulate metabolic rate

Adrenal glands

• Control salt and carbohydrate metabolism

• Secrete hormones active in arousal in sleep

• Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)

Adrenal Cortex

Outside of adrenal glands

Adrenal Medulla

• Inside of adrenal glands

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Adrenocortical Response

• Secretes glucocorticoids (anti-inflammatory agents, suppresses immune system)

Adrenal Medullary Response

• Secrete epinephrine and norepinephrine 

• Sympathetic nervous system is activated (fight or flight)

Hypothalamic-Pituitary Axis

• Hypothalamus releases CRH

• CRH stimulates pituitary gland

• Pituitary gland releases ACTH

• ACTH stimulates adrenal glands to release cortisol

Allostasis

• Body's response to stressors to regain homeostasis

Selye’s Stress Model

• relationship between stress and physical illness

• stressor=what causes stress

• stress=response to stressor

General Adaptation Syndrome

• everyone generally responds to stressors in similar ways

• in rat experiment, found enlarged adrenal cortex, shrinking thymus, ulceration of stomach and duodenum

Stages of Selye’s Model

1) Alarm

2) Resistance

3) Exhaustion: wiped out physically, could result in depression or death

Pros of Selye’s Model

• started a lot of research about stress and physical Illness

• prompted specific methods to assess stress

Cons of Selye’s Model

• Not all physical reactions to stressors are the same

• Recent research on allostasis/allostatic load has more weight then Selye's model

• Ignores situational +psychological factors 

Lazarus's theory of stress

• Your response to a stressor depends on how you perceive it

• More cognitively focused

• Highlights the person interacting with environment/stressor

• Ex: for one person giving a speech might be very stressful, for others it might be fun and exciting

Lazarus’ Definition of Psychological stress

relationship between a person and their environment that is PERCEIVED as stressful

Primary Appraisal

• when we encounter a situation

• three elements: harm, threat and challenge

Lazarus’ appraisal responses

Harm-damage is already done

Challenge-how can I make the best of a situation

Avoidance-avoiding stressor

Threat-person thinks something could be harmful in the future

Primary Appraisal

• Sensing the importance of the task

Emotion-Focused Coping

• Avoiding negative thoughts about the presentation

Avoidance Coping

• Ignoring the stressor completely

Secondary Appraisal

Evaluating her resources to cope

Alarm Stage 1

body goes into fight or flight to combat the stressor

Resistance Stage 2

Body attempts to maintain intense level of performance if stress level continues over long periods of time

Exhaustion

Body starts to physically and mentally decline due to stress over long periods of time

Cataclysmic Events

• Natural Disasters, Terror Acts

• Could prompt life event

• Not within our control

Life event

• Big significant events (good or bad)

• Starting a family, having a baby, moving to a new town, divorce

Daily Hassles

• Small annoying things your deal with on a daily basis

• Ex: finding parking, bad weather, traffic, making food, homework

Relationships to stress

CONTROL ↓, STRESS ↑

OVERLOAD OF TASKS ↑, STRESS ↑

PROXIMITY TO EVENT ↑, STRESS ↑

ANTICIPATING STRESSFUL EVENT ↑, STRESS ↑

After effects

• After the stressor has passed, they still feel the effects of stressor

• Shortened attention span

• Poor performance on cognitive tasks

• Hard time concentrating

• Less likely to help others than when they are not stressed

Physiological Measures of stress

• Blood pressure, hormone levels, heart rate, respiration rate, polygraph

• Pros: objective

• Cons: need equipment

Life events scales

• Pros: easier to administer

• Cons: subjective

Coping Mechanisms

• Strong social support

• Sense of personal control

• Optimistic beliefs=low allostatic load

Problem focused coping

• doing something constructive

• Optimists do this more 

• if you think its uncontrollable

• Ex: planning a schedule to study for an exam

Emotion focused coping

• Managing your emotions

• Do this if you think its uncontrollable

• Ex: complaining to friends about how hard the exam might be

relaxation training

learning how to relax

CBT

Changing attitudes towards stressor

Phagocytosis

• “cell eating”

• non specific immune system response

Granulocytes

• Perform phagocytosis

• contain granules that are filled with chemicals 

• These chemicals break down substances 

Macrophages

• Preform phagocytosis

• Look for worn out cells/debris  

• Secrete chemicals to break down cell membranes and get rid of them

inflammation

• Non specific immune system response 

• blood vessels dilate which allows more blood flow to an area

• Lymph flows through blood stream which allows WBC to attack pathogen

• damaged cells release enzymes help destroy microorganisms 

• Granulocytes/Macrophages migrate to damaged cells to fight off micro organisms 

Specific immune system response

• faster and more targeted 

• specific to one pathogen 

• Ex: specific to one strain of a cold virus 

Cell mediated immunity

• T cells develop specific receptors

indirect attack

• body attacks something related to target rather than target itself

• B cells differentiate into plasma cells

• As plasma cells they secrete antibodies 

• Each antibody is made for a specific antigen

antigen

• forgiven pathogens that enter the body

• Antibody-generator

lymphocytes

• come from bone marrow

• Produce antibodies

b cells

• lymphocytes that stay in bone marrow

• Produce antibodies 

t cells

• Lymphocytes that travel to thymus 

• They attack damaged cells and t ty to reduce their effect

Primary response 

• when we encounter an antigen for the first time 

• Antibodies are made

• Memory B cells are made to attack again if virus comes again 

Secondary response

• exposure to something you’ve see before 

• faster and more effective because memory cells recognize antigen

A-delta fiber

• Large, myelinated, fast, acute pain

• Ex: stub your toe, paper cut

• Skin and mucous membranes

• Stinging pain

C-fiber

• Small, unmyelinated, slow burning pain

• Dull aching pain that can be generalized throughout the body

A-beta fiber

• Large, myelinated, inhibition of pain

• Touch and pressure 

Somatosensory Cortex

• Processes touch, pressure, temperature, and pain

Endorphins

natural opiates

Endogenous opiate peptides

• Impacts mind, emotions, immune system, other systems simultaneously

Stress-Induced Analgesia

• Pain relief from the bodies production of endorphins in response to stress

Naloxone 

• Stops endorphins from binding

• Participants in study injected with this did not show this stress induced analgesia

Proinflammatory cytokines

• trigger responses including fatigue and increased sensitivity due to pain

• trigger inflammatory response

Experience of pain

• If you expect less pain, your brain had less activity in pain related areas

What influences pain

• Age: older people report more pain

• Gender: women report more pain than men

• Socioeconomic Factors: lower SES=more frequent reports

• Culture and Ethnicity: stoic=less pain emotive=more pain

• Most pain correlated personalities=hysteria and hypochondriasis, anxious, depressed

• Social Learning

non-specific/general immune response

body’s immediate response again harm, not towards a specific strain