Indigenous American artwork

Bandolier bags identification

Time: 1860s

Medium: trade cloth, animal hide, glass beads, fringe

Location: Native North America

Artist: Women in the Ojibwe, Lenape, and Anishinaabe tribes

Museums housed: One is housed in the National Museum of the American Indian (NMAI) in NYC

Bandolier bags historical context

• Based on European soldiers who used bags to store ammunition cartridges

• Meant to be worn around the shoulder

• Stylistic differences in the bags are due to trade with European and Euro Americans

• Were very popular in the Eastern or Woodlands region

Bandolier bags formal qualities

• They have lots of color (especially red)

• Flowers

• Geometric shapes

• Symmetrical

• Both beautiful and functional

Bandolier bags content

• Symbolize cultural identity

• Tribes used beads, ribbons, and materials specific to their region

• Prairie tribes have more geometric patterns white the tribes from the Great Lakes have more floral patterns

• Intended to complement men’s ceremonial outfits

• Help to express group identities and social status

Serpent mound identification

Time: Created around 1100 CE (Middle Ages)      

Location: In rural, southwestern Ohio

Measured about 1,300 feet in length 

Artists: The Fort Ancient Culture (1000-1650 CE) was primarily responsible for the mound 

• Another theory is that the Fort Ancient Culture refurbished a preexisting mound by the Adena Culture (c. 1100 BCE - 200 CE) or the Hopewell Culture (c. 100 BCE - 550 CE)

Serpent mound formal qualities

• In the shape of a serpent with an oval head and spiral body 

• The color green 

• Both architectural and sculptural

• Earth work

Serpent mound historical context

• Erected by settled people who cultivated maize, beans, and squash

• Cultures in North and Central America have connected supernatural powers to snakes or reptiles

• Bedrock folded beneath the mound which suggests a meteor hit it 250-300 million years ago

• The rattlesnake was a common theme in Mississippian culture

Serpent Mound content

• Has seven winding coils between the head which is at the east and the tail which is at the west

• Head is an oval shaped and has been interpreted to be an enlarged eye, a hollow egg, or  a frog about to be swallowed by a large jaw

• The head aligns with the summer solstice sunset and the tail points to the winter solstice sunrise

Hide paintings identification

Painted elk hide

Time: Created in the 1800s

Artists: Made by the Shosonne tribe; Many hides were painted by Codsiogo

Hide painting by Cotsiogo is in the Brooklyn Museum

Medium: Used natural pigments like red ochre and chalk

Hide paintings content

• Includes buffalo, horses, people and teepees

• Changed to affirm Native American identities

• Scenes celebrated battles and other biographical details

• Cotsiogo's Brooklyn Museum hide displays elements of different dances including the Sun Dance

• Shows activities of daily life (women resting near a fire and men hunting)

Hide paintings formal qualities

• Were aesthetic and functional but switched to merely aesthetic

• Were decorated with geometric of figural motifs

Hide paintings historical context

• Tradition of the Great Basin and Great Plains people

• Represent Cotsiogo’s experiences during a major period of change for the Shoshone people

• Cotsiogo was placed on the Wind River Reservation

• The Sun Dance was intended to honor the Creator Deity but the government outlawed the dance until 1935

Totem poles identification

Artists: Created by Kwakwaka’wakw, Haida, and Tlingit cultures in the coasts of pacific northwest

Location: Created in British Columbia and Alaska

Time: During the 18th and 19th centuries

Now preserved in museums and traditional territories (ex American Museum of Natural History, Brooklyn Museum, Metropolitan Museum of Art, etc)

Totem poles historical context

• Ceremonial - worn by dancers during ceremonies

• Worn during potlatch, a ceremony where the host displayed his status, partly by giving away gifts to those who attended

• Masks conveyed social position

• Family lineages (displayed family crest symbols)

• Clan crests

• Visual record of important historical events

• Function as powerful expressions of identity and storytelling for the communities

• Kwakwaka’wakw bands are arranged into 4 clans: Killer Whale, Eagle, Raven, and Wolf clans

• Clans are divided into numayn (groups that shared a common ancestor)

• Myths relate moments of transformation involving trickster supernaturals

• The Thunderbird was a mythical ancestor of the Kwakwaka’wakw 

• Due to the introduction enforcement of Christianity masking practices started using metal tools 

• Masks were passed between family members of a specific clan

• Potlatches were banned in 1885 until the 1950s since Christian missionaries considered them immoral

• Many masks were confiscated due to the prohibition of potlatches

Totem poles formal qualities

• Geometric shapes

• Symmetry

• Use rich colors like red, black, blue-green, and white to emphasize features (eyes, beaks, and wings)

• Complementary colors 

• Stylized

• Totem poles are tall cedar carvings that stack bold figure

• Have patterns from repeated shapes like ovoids (the pupils of the eyes), U-forms, and S-forms

• Take months or years to create

Totem poles content

• Transformation masks show a powerful animal on the outside that can be opened to reveal a human face on the inside

• Symbolize the shifting between spiritual and human worlds during potlatch ceremonies

• Use formline style (terms that describes the characteristics of Northwest Coast visual culture)

Mesa Verde Identification

Time: Between 450 and 1300 CE

Artist: Built by the Ancestral Puebloan people

Medium: Made of stone, mortar, and plaster

Region - Mesa Verde National Park in southwestern Colorado

• Built more than 600 structures into the cliff faces of the United States’ Four Corners region

• Murals used paint produced from clay, organic materials, and minerals

Mesa Verde formal qualities

• Symmetrical

• Mostly residential but some were used for storage and ritual

Mesa Verde Content

• Show the ingenuity and craftsmanship of the Puebloans

• There are traces of the Puebloan constructors in handprints and fingerprints in the mortar and plaster walls

• Cliff Palace is the largest of the cliff dwellings with about 150 rooms and more than 20 circular rooms

• Originally ranged from 1 to 4 stories

• Kivas had wood-beamed roofs held up by 6 support columns

• Kivas had fire pits/hearths, ventilation shafts, a deflector, and a sipapu (small hole in the floor used for ceremonial purposes)

• Have murals displaying geometric designs or animals and plants

Mesa Verde Historical Context

• Wildfires have been a threat to Mesa Verde

• Looting has been a threat

• Someone took artifacts and human remains in the 19th century

• The park is a UNESCO World Heritage Site

• “Verde” means green in Spanish and “Mesa” means table but refers to the flat-topped mountains in this context

• The Puebloan accessed the dwelling with retractable ladders

• Ancestral Puebloans occupied this region between 450 CE and 1300 CE

• Only about 125 people lived in Cliff Palace

• Families lived in architectural units organized around kivas (circular and subterranean rooms)

• Kivas continue to be used today by Puebloan peoples for ceremonial purposes

• Were abandoned in 1300 likely due to drought, lack of resources, or violence

Black on Black Ceramic Vessel Identification

Time period: Early 1900s

Artist: Created by Native potter Maria Martinez

Worked with her husband Julian and her family

Medium: Made from locally found clay and was mixed with a temper made from sherds of broken pots that were pounded into a powder or volcanic ash

• Used a matte-black design over polished-black

• One is in the National Museum of Women in the Arts in New York

Black on lack Ceramic Vessel content

• Could be formed into different shapes such as a rounded pot or a flat plate

• Covered with designs painted with guaco (iron rich solution)

• Had designs including rain clouds, bird feathers, rows of planted corn, and the flow of rivers

Black on Black Ceramic Vessel Formal Qualities

• Maria sold them as beautiful objects rather than utilitarian objects

• Polished rubbing by a smooth stone to create a shiny finish

• Symmetrical

• Exaggerated designs due to low rounded shapes of the pot

Black on Black Ceramic Vessel Historical Context

• Pots were used in the pueblos for storage, cooking, and ceremonies but these practices began to decline

• Watched potters from San Ildefonso especially her aunt Nicholasa and potters from other nearby Pueblos

• Martinez signed her name on the bottom of the pots to help the community

• The Martinezes worked on an Ancestral Pueblo dig site where they found the pottery sherds

• Julian Martinez drew and painted the designs in his notebooks that he found on the walls and and on the sherds of pottery

San Lorenzo and La Venta

Identification:

• 1600-350 BCE

• The Olmec civilization

• Gulf Coast of Mexico

• The masks were made from polished, green stone

Content:

• Jadeite symbolized life, fertility, and elite status

• Masks were worn by rulers to gain spiritual authority

• Showed Aztecs respected Olmecs and their history
  

Formal qualities:

Historical Context:

• Olmecs were fishers and hunters

Yaxchilan

Identification:

• Located on the south bank of Usumacinta River in Chiapas, Mexico

• Significant Maya center between 250-900 CE

• The carved stone lintels were commissioned by the rulers of the city

• Bird Jaguar IV commissioned Structure 21

• Lintels 24 and 25 are on permanent display in the British Museum’s Mexican Gallery

• Lintel 26 is in the Museo Nacional de Antropologia in Mexico City

Content:

• Powerful Maya city-state that had the purpose of serving as a political, military, and trade hub (by controlling the Usumacinta River)

• The lintels provide a long dynastic record in text and image

• Lintels depicted rituals, warfare, and divine connection

• Legitimized its ruling dynasty through grand temples, palaces, and lintels

• Structure 23 highlights the wife of Shield Jaguar II - displays the importance of women in Mayan culture

• Structure 23 contains lintels 24, 25, and 16

• Structure 21 contains lintels 15, 16, and 17

• Limestone lintel’s scene represents a bloodletting ritual performed by the king of Yaxchilan, Shield Jaguar the Great (681-742) and his wife, Kady K’ab’al Xook (Itzamnaaj Bahlen III)

• First two glyphs in the text at the top of the lintel indicate the event and the date it took place (October 24th, 709 CE) and the last glyph represents the Emblem Glyph of Yaxchilan

• Structure 33 has a roof-comb which allows the structure to appear taller

• Structure 33 includes lintels depicted Bird Jaguar IV and a top which depicts him against his enemies in a game

• Structure 40 depicts part of Bird Jaguar IV’s political campaign 

Formal qualities:

Historical Context:

• Bird Jaguar was Yaxchilan’s most prolific builder and many major structures were built during his reign

• Scenes that depicted the public display or captives are often depicted in Maya Art and this was an essential aspect of Mayan warfare

• Bloodletting was a common practice in Maya life from the Late Preclassic period (400 BCE - 250 CE) and beyond

Templo Mayor

Identification:

• Principal temple of the Aztec civilization located in the heart of Tenochtitlan

• Adobe bricks and volcanic stone

• Built by Aztec civilization

• Constructed around 1325 CE on island in the middle of Lake Texcoco

• Stone monolith of a dismembered and decapitated woman in Mexico City - goddess Coyolxauhqui

Content:

• Served as a religious and ceremonial center dedicated to deities Huitzilopochtli (god of war) and Tlaloc (rain god)

• Symbolized Aztec’s power and architectural prowess

• Covered with intricate carving and sculptures - reflected the civilization's rich mythology and cultural practices including human sacrifices 

Formal qualities:

• Structure was divided in 4 main quadrants with Templo Mayor at the center centered around the navel of the universe (the axis mundi) 

• About 90 ft high and covered in stucco

• Two grand staircases accessed twin temples dedicated to Tlaloc and Huitzilopochtli

Historical Context:

• The Templo Mayor was expanded, enlarged and reconstructed during seven main building phases which corresponded with different rulers (tlatoani) taking office

• The two deities symbolized atl-tlachinolli (burnt water)

Coy Stone

• Made by Aztec (Mexica) people 

• Made in 1500 in the Valley of Mexico

Content:

• Depicts Coyolxauhqui after she is defeated by her brother, Huitzilopochtli when she tries to kill her mother Coatlicue

• Imagery of skulls/monster faces, bells, snakes, and her nakedness

Formal qualities: 

• Had colors red, green, black, white, and tan

Sun Calendar Stone

• Made by Aztec (Mexica) people around 1500 in the Valley of Mexico

Content:

• Depicts their sun god, Tonatiuh and the five eras (Jaguar, Wind, Tlaloc, Chalchiuhtlicue)

• Depicts the ideas of the Aztec people and the ideas they has about nature being in a cycle

• Man in the middle with rich looking clothing/ a headdress (shows he is important)

Formal qualities:

• Originally painted with red, yellow, white, and blue

Rulers Feathered Headdress

Identification:

• Between 1519-1521 CE

• Aztec capital Tenochtitlan (modern day Mexico City)

• Made of luxury materials like pure gold  ornaments and feathers from the Quetzal, Roseate Spoonbill, and Cotinga

• Crafted by skilled Aztec artisans called Amanteca (feather workers) that lived in a special quarter of the Capitol

• Use green iridescent feathers from male Quetzal birds found in Central America

Historical Context:

• Symbolizes divine power, high status, wealth, and connection to the gods

• Were often worn by royalty, priests, or elite warriors

• Many different quetzals were needed because each only has about 2-3 long feathers

• After Spanish conquest, artifacts like the Moctezuma’s headdress were taken to Europe and became war booty and “exotic treasures”

• Spanish conquest shifted artistic tradition towards Christian iconography

• They are often misinterpreted as decoration, causing them to lose their original spiritual and political meaning when placed into European collections

Chavin de Huantar site

• 900-200 BCE

• Archaeological and cultural site in the Andean highlands of Peru. 

• cultural expressions found at Chavín most likely did not originate there. 

• drew many worshipers to its temple which helped in spreading the artistic style of Chavín 

• comprised of two building phases: the U-shaped Old Temple and the New Temple 

  • expanded the Old Temple and added a rectangular sunken court

• Many of the maze-like galleries are connected with each other but some are separate.

• galleries all existed in darkness

  • there are many smaller tunnels that allow for air to pass throughout the structure.

    • The god for whom the temple was constructed was represented in the Lanzón

      • a notched wedge-shaped stone over 15 feet tall, carved with the image of a supernatural being, and located deep within the Old Temple, 

  • Two key elements characterize the Lanzón deity: it is a mixture of human and animal features, and the representation favors a complex and visually confusing style

  • The fangs and talons most likely indicate associations with the jaguar and the caiman

  • The eyebrows and hair of the figure have been rendered as snakes, making them read as both bodily features and animals.

  • The serpent motif seen in the Lanzón is also visible in a nose ornament

  • would have been worn by an elite person to show not only their wealth and power but their allegiance to the Chavín religion

City of Cusco and Architecture

• Capital of Tawantinsuyu (“Land of the Four Quarters”) and is located on a 11,200 ft elevation.

  • Was the historic capital of the Inca empire from the 13th to the 16th century, but Cusco has been inhabited continuously for 3,000 years

• City was divided into two sections: Hanen (upper or high) and hurin (lower)

• Some believe that the city is deliberately in the shape of a Puma, a symbol of Inka might

• Qorikancha (“Golden House”) was the center point within the Inca empire, a place to worship the sun. (the most sacred shrine of the Inca)

• It has radiated imaginary lines (ceques) which connected to shrines all over Cusco valley which were also a mark of time

• It is one of the few shrines that was turned into a Christian Holy space after the conquest by the spaniards. 

• With the Spanish conquest in 1532,  monasteries and manor houses were built over the Inca city

  • Mostly of baroque style with local adaptations

Maize Cobs

• gold-silver alloy structures located in the courtyard of the Incan temple of Qorikancha (which is in the capital city of Cusco).

• mimic the appearance of a ripe ear of corn that is ready to be harvested

• were constructed by Inka metalsmiths between 1440 and 1533 CE.

• created in South America, specifically in Peru.

• crafted from metal alloys including gold, silver, and copper

• the silver and copper were used to imitate the internal and external components of corn.

• maize cobs were typically used as offerings in religious and political ritual practices

• symbolized the Incas’ control over the natural world.

Inka Art

• Miniature llama figurines and Capacocha figures

• created by Incan metalsmiths between 1400 and 1532 CE in Peru.

• both created from gold, silver, and copper alloys using the techniques of soldering (joining pieces together using heat) and hammerin

• The capacocha figures also were sacrifices made to the deities and symbolize the Incas’ divine representation

• Llamas were sources of meat and wool for the Incas and they emphasized the community’s health and prosperity. T

• he miniature llama figures were offerings to the mountain deities to ensure replenished altiplano grasses and fertility of the herds.

Machu Picchu

The stones that made the buildings were thoughtfully carved so that they fit together and resisted earthquakes.

• It was built in the middle of the 15th century as a royal estate for the first Inca emperor, Pachacuti Inca Yupanqui.

Terraces were used for agriculture. Because of the steep mountain sides, steps would be used to plants crops. 

• It was first intended to be a place where the emperor and his family could host feasts, perform religious ceremonies, and administer the affairs of empire. The emperor also intended this are to be passed down for his family after his death. It contains housing for elites, retainers, religious shrines, as well as carved rock outcrops. 

All-T'oqapu tunic and the division of labor

The All-T'oqapu Tunic is a piece of Andean textile art, which shows the Inca empire's way of weaving and dyeing. They were

• created by acllas (the chosen women) who were skilled weavers and textile artists.

• The tunics were made from finely spun camelid wool and cotton and were made to symbolize the power and dominion of the Sapa Inca

• showcasing the empire's wealth, military might, and expertise in textile production.

• The tunic depicts certain designs that were made with 100 threads per centimeter, which were reserved for only the royal household that collected the acllas.

• The All-T'oqapu Tunic likely represented various peoples, places, and social roles within the empire, making the tunic a symbol of the Sapa Inka's power and dominion.