Histology of the Nervous System of Man and Vertebrates

Flashcards covering key concepts related to histology and cell biology, focusing on the structure and function of cells, proteins, and their interactions.

Prokaryotic cells

Cells that lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles, generally smaller and simpler.

Eukaryotic cells

Cells that have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, typically larger and more complex.

Plasma membrane

A biological membrane that separates and protects the interior of all cells from the outside environment.

Cytoplasm

All materials within a cell excluding the nucleus.

Nucleoid

The region in prokaryotic cells where the DNA is located, not enclosed within a membrane.

Ribosome

Cellular machinery responsible for protein synthesis.

Capsule

A protective outer layer that covers some prokaryotic cells.

Pilus

Hair-like appendage found on the surface of many bacteria that enables adhesion to surfaces.

Mitochondrion

An organelle responsible for producing energy (ATP) through oxidative phosphorylation.

Lysosome

An organelle containing enzymes for breaking down waste materials and cellular debris.

Endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

A network of membranes involved in protein and lipid synthesis.

Golgi complex

An organelle involved in modifying, sorting, and packaging proteins for secretion.

Cytoskeleton

A network of fibers that maintains cell shape and facilitates movement.

Microtubule

A component of the cytoskeleton, important for maintaining cell shape and facilitating cellular transport.

Microfilament

A component of the cytoskeleton, involved in muscle contraction and cell movement.

Signal transduction

The process through which a cell responds to signals from its environment.

Photosynthesis

The process by which green plants and some other organisms use sunlight to synthesize foods with the help of chlorophyll.

Proteasome

A protein complex that degrades ubiquitinated proteins.

Gene expression

The process where information from a gene is used to synthesize a functional gene product, usually proteins.

Amino acids

Organic compounds that combine to form proteins, containing both amino and carboxyl functional groups.

Primary structure

The sequence of amino acids in a protein.

Tertiary structure

The overall three-dimensional structure of a polypeptide, determined by the interactions among the side chains.

Disulfide bond

A covalent bond formed between the sulfur atoms of two cysteine residues, stabilizing protein structure.

Hydrophobic effect

The tendency of nonpolar substances to aggregate in aqueous solution and exclude water molecules.

Chaperone proteins

Proteins that assist the proper folding of other proteins.

Prion

An infectious agent composed of protein that can cause other proteins to misfold.

Alzheimer's disease

A neurodegenerative disease characterized by memory loss and cognitive decline associated with protein misfolding.

Glycolysis

A metabolic pathway that converts glucose into pyruvate, generating ATP and NADH.

TCA cycle

The citric acid cycle, a key metabolic pathway that generates energy through the oxidation of acetyl-CoA.

Sexual reproduction

The process by which offspring are produced from the combination of genetic material from two parents.

Mutation

A change in the DNA sequence that can impact protein structure and function.

Cytosol

The fluid part of the cytoplasm, where many metabolic reactions occur.

Amino acid side chain

The part of an amino acid that varies and determines the properties and function of the amino acid.

Quaternary structure

The arrangement of multiple polypeptide chains into a single functional protein complex.

Transcription

The process of copying a segment of DNA into RNA.

Translation

The process by which ribosomes synthesize proteins using the mRNA transcript.

Hydrophilic

Having an affinity for water; capable of interacting with water molecules.

Hydrophobic

Having a lack of affinity for water; does not interact well with water.

Phosphorylation

A biochemical process involving the addition of a phosphoryl group to a protein, which can alter the protein's function.

Hemoglobin

A protein in red blood cells that carries oxygen from the lungs to the body's tissues.

Protein folding

The process by which a protein assumes its functional shape or conformation.

Secondary structure

Regions of regular repeating structure in proteins, such as alpha-helices and beta-sheets.

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs)

A group of progressive conditions that affect the brain and nervous system of humans and animals, associated with prions.

Gene

A sequence of DNA that encodes a functional product, typically a protein.

Cell differentiation

The process by which a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell type.

Nucleus

The membrane-bound organelle that houses the cell's genetic material.

Chromatin

The complex of DNA and proteins that forms chromosomes within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.

Endosome

A membrane-bound compartment inside eukaryotic cells that transports materials from the cell membrane.

Peroxisome

An organelle that contains enzymes for oxidative reactions, such as the breakdown of fatty acids.

Chloroplast

An organelle found in plant cells that conducts photosynthesis.

Cilium

A hair-like structure that helps with cell movement or movement of substances along cell surfaces.

Flagellum

A long, whip-like structure that aids in cellular locomotion.

Nucleolus

A structure within the nucleus responsible for ribosome production.

RNA polymerase

An enzyme that synthesizes RNA from a DNA template.

Cytokinesis

The process of cell division that results in the splitting of the cytoplasm.

Diploidy

Having two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.

Ribonuclease

An enzyme that cleaves RNA molecules, playing a role in RNA processing.

Biological molecules

Essential organic compounds found in cells, including carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.

AlphaFold AI

An artificial intelligence model developed to predict protein structures.

RNA

Ribonucleic acid, a molecule essential for coding, decoding, regulation, and expression of genes.

Beta sheet

A common type of secondary structure in proteins where segments of polypeptides lie side by side and are held together by hydrogen bonds.

Alpha helix

A type of secondary structure in proteins characterized by a coiled shape stabilized by hydrogen bonds.

Amino acid

Building blocks of proteins; organic compounds made of an amino group, a carboxyl group, and a side chain.

Van der Waals forces

Weak attractions between molecules or parts of molecules that result from transient local partial charges.

Gene therapy

A technique that modifies a gene to treat or prevent disease.

Cell wall

A rigid layer outside the plasma membrane of some cells that provides structural support.

Nucleic acids

Biomolecules essential for all known forms of life, including DNA and RNA.

Lipid bilayer

A double-layered arrangement of phosphate and lipid molecules that form the plasma membrane.

Neurodegenerative disease

A disorder characterized by the gradual degeneration and death of nerve cells.

Amination

The process of introducing an amino group into an organic compound.

Sickle-cell anemia

A genetic disorder caused by a mutation in the hemoglobin gene, leading to misshaped red blood cells.

Complex carbohydrates

Polysaccharides formed from long chains of sugar molecules, serving as energy storage.

Hypothesis

A proposed explanation based on limited evidence, serving as a starting point for further investigation.

Characteristic of viruses

Tiny infectious agents that require a host cell to replicate.

Quantitative genetics

The study of the inheritance of traits that are determined by multiple genes.

Protein misfolding diseases

Disorders resulting from the improper folding of proteins, leading to aggregates and loss of function.

Neurodegeneration

The progressive loss of structure or function of neurons.

Aβ peptides

Amyloid beta peptides associated with the pathology of Alzheimer's disease.

Transgenic organisms

Organisms that have been genetically modified to contain one or more genes from another species.

Genetic engineering

The direct manipulation of an organism's genes using biotechnology.

Neuroplasticity

The ability of the brain to reorganize itself by forming new neural connections.

Cell cycle

The series of events that take place in a cell leading to its division and replication.

Molecular biology

The branch of biology that deals with the molecular basis of biological activity.

Biochemistry

The study of chemical processes within and relating to living organisms.

Systems biology

An interdisciplinary field that focuses on complex interactions in biological systems.

Automated protein folding

Use of computer algorithms to predict protein structure based on amino acid sequences.