HSA Unit 2 Review- Textbook

Terms from the textbook

a-, an

absence of, without, no, not, negates meaning

endo

within, in

aur/o 

aur/i 

ear

dacry/o

tear, tear duct

ir/o 

irid/o

Iris

kerat/o 

cornea

-rrhea 

 flow, discharge

-plegia

paralysis

Gustation

the special sense associated with the tongue

four types of papillae

• circumvallate

• foliate

• filiform

• fungiform

Olfaction

Smell

audition

hearing; the transduction of sound waves into a neural signal that is made possible by the structures of the ear

external ear

consists of the auricle, sometimes referred to as the pinna, ear canal, and tympanic membrane.

auditory canal

C-shaped curves of the auricle direct sound waves toward this; enters the skull through the external auditory meatus of the temporal bone

temporal bone

a paired bone situated at the sides and base of the skull

tympanic membrane

the ear drum; vibrates after it is struck by sound waves.

middle ear

consists of the ossicles, oval window, and tympanic membrane

ossicles

the malleus, incus, and stapes, which are Latin names that roughly translate to hammer, anvil, and stirrup.

malleus

attached to the tympanic membrane and articulates with the incus

incus

in turn, articulates with the stapes

stapes

attached to the inner ear, where the sound waves will be transduced into a neural signal.

oval window

Where vibrations of the ossicles travel through; moving fluid in a wave-like motion.

inner ear

often described as a bony labyrinth, as it is composed of a series of canals embedded within the temporal bone.

cochlea

is responsible for hearing

vestibule

is responsible for balance

vestibulocochlear nerve

neural signals from the cochlear and vestibule are relayed to the brain stem through separate fiber bundles.

Somatosensation

Touch; considered a general sense

Nociception

sensation of potentially damaging stimuli. Mechanical, chemical, or thermal stimuli beyond a set threshold will elicit painful sensations.

Vision

special sense of sight that is based on the transduction of light stimuli received through the eyes

• superior rectus

• medial rectus

• inferior rectus

• lateral rectus.

Movement of the eye within the orbit is accomplished; arranged at the cardinal points around the eye and are named for those locations

outermost layer (eye)

fibrous tunic, which includes the white sclera and clear cornea

sclera

accounts for five-sixths of the surface of the eye, most of which is not visible, though humans are unique compared with many other species in having so much of the “white of the eye” visible

cornea

covers the anterior tip of the eye and allows light to enter the eye.

middle layer (eye)

the vascular tunic, which is mostly composed of the choroid, ciliary body, and iris.

choroid

a layer of highly vascularized connective tissue that provides a blood supply to the eyeball. The _____ is posterior to the ciliary body, a muscular structure that is attached to the lens by zonule fibers.

iris

colored part of the eye; a smooth muscle that opens or closes the pupil, which is the hole at the center of the eye that allows light to enter.

innermost layer (eye)

neural tunic, or retina, which contains the nervous tissue responsible for photoreception.

anterior cavity (eye)

the space between the cornea and lens, including the iris and ciliary body. It is filled with a watery fluid called the aqueous humor.

posterior cavity (eye)

the space behind the lens that extends to the posterior side of the interior eyeball, where the retina is located. The posterior cavity is filled with a more viscous fluid called the vitreous humor.

retina

composed of several layers and contains specialized cells for the initial processing of visual stimuli.

three types of cone opsins

red, green, and blue; sensitive to different wavelengths of light and provide us with color vision.

grayscale

low-light vision; In other words, in a dark room, everything appears as a shade of gray.

visual acuity

sharpness of vision

stye

infection of an oil gland of the eyelid
(hordeolum)

cataract

a condition in which the lens of the eye becomes cloudy

proprioception

Sense of position and movement of the body

thermoreceptor

specialized neurons that respond to changes in temperature

mechanoreceptor

a sensory neuron that responds to mechanical pressure

anosmia

Blunt force trauma to the face; can lead to the loss of the olfactory nerve, and subsequently, loss of the sense of smell.

Otitis Media

known as inflammation of the middle ear canal that involves the eardrum.

Conductive Hearing Loss

occurs when something disrupts sound through the mid and outer ear, such as physical damage to the eardrum (perforation).

Tinnitus

a condition in which a person hears ringing, roaring, or buzzing in their ears.

Otosclerosis

the hardening of the ear due to new bone formation of the inner ear ossicles.

Glaucoma

a condition in which increased pressure in the eye leads to progressive vision loss. It is the second most common cause of permanent blindness in the United States.

amblyopia

Also known as lazy eye; is caused when there is an imbalance of stimuli from the brain to the eyes (one eye receives more than the other).

Epidermis

First layer of skin, composed of keratinized, stratified squamous epithelium.

Thin skin

four layers of cells. From deep to superficial

Thick skin

found only on the palms of the hands and the soles of the feet.

Keratin

intracellular fibrous protein that gives hair, nails, and skin their hardness and water-resistant properties.

Dermis

Middle layer of skin; contains blood and lymph vessels, nerves, and other structures, such as hair follicles and sweat glands.

Hypodermis (Subcutaneous Layer)

3rd and last layer of skin; erves to connect the skin to the underlying fascia of the bones and muscles. It is not strictly a part of the skin.

what happens when the body becomes excessively warm?

sweat glands will be stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system to produce large amounts of sweat.

Hair

keratinous filament growing out of the epidermis. It is primarily made of dead, keratinized cells. Strands of hair originate in an epidermal penetration of the dermis called the hair follicle.

nail bed

a specialized structure of the epidermis that is found at the tips of our fingers and toes.

sudoriferous glands

sweat glands; make sweat to cool the body.

eccrine sweat gland

type of gland that produces hypotonic sweat for thermoregulation

Eccrine glands

a primary component of thermoregulation in humans and thus help to maintain homeostasis.

apocrine sweat gland

usually associated with hair follicles in densely hairy areas.

sebaceous gland

a type of oil gland that is found all over the body and helps to lubricate and waterproof the skin and hair.

Basal Cell Carcinoma (BCC)

of cancer that affects the mitotically active stem cells in the stratum basale of the epidermis.

Squamous Cell Carcinoma (SCC)

cancer that affects the keratinocytes of the stratum spinosum and presents as lesions commonly found on the scalp, ears, and hands

Melanoma

cancer characterized by the uncontrolled growth of melanocytes, the pigment-producing cells in the epidermis.

ABCDE for Early Diagnosis

• Asymmetry: the two sides are not symmetrical

• Borders: the edges are irregular in shape

• Color: the color is varied shades of brown or black

• Diameter: it is larger than 6 mm (0.24 in)

• Evolving: its shape has changed

vitiligo

melanocytes in certain areas lose their ability to produce melanin, possibly due to an autoimmune reaction. This leads to a loss of color in patches.

Addison’s disease

stimulate the release of excess amounts of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), which can give the skin a deep bronze color

Ringworm

presents as a circular rash that is itchy and red and can be found on various parts of the body. 

rule of nines

Burns measured in terms of the size of the total surface area affected; associates specific anatomical areas with a percentage that is a factor of nine

first-degree burn

a superficial burn that affects only the epidermis.

second-degree burn

goes deeper and affects both the epidermis and a portion of the dermis. These burns result in swelling and a painful blistering of the skin

third-degree burn

fully extends into the epidermis and dermis, destroying the tissue and affecting the nerve endings and sensory function.

fourth-degree burn

even more severe, affecting the underlying muscle and bone.

decubitus ulcers

caused by constant, long-term, unrelieved pressure on certain body parts that are bony, reducing blood flow to the area and leading to necrosis.

skeletal system function

• supports the body

• facilitates movement

• protects internal organs

• produces blood cells

• stores and releases minerals and fatal

axial skeleton

forms the vertical, central axis of the body and includes all bones of the head, neck, chest, and back; serves to protect the brain, spinal cord, heart, and lungs

Bones of the Skull

• Frontal – forms the forehead

• Parietal – the upper lateral sides of the cranium

• Occipital – the posterior skull and base of the cranial cavity

• Temporal – the lower lateral sides of the cranium

• Sphenoid -the ‘keystone’ bone that forms part of the base of the skull and eye sockets

• Ethmoid – forms part of the nose and orbit and base of the cranium

• Auditory ossicles – the small bones of the middle ear

• External auditory meatus – the external opening of the ear and temporal bone

Bones of the Face

• Zygomatic – the cheekbone

• Maxillary – the upper jaw and hard palate

• Palatine – the lateral walls of the nose

• Lacrimal – the walls of the orbit

• Inferior conchae – the lower lateral wall of the nasal cavity

• Vomer – the bone that separates the left and right nasal cavity

• Mandible – the lower jaw bone (the only movable bone of the skull)

• Hyoid – the bone located between the mandible and larynx, not connected to other bones

Types of Vertebrae

• Cervical – C1 to C7, the first 7 vertebrae in the neck region

• Thoracic – T1 to T12, the next 12 vertebrae that form the outward curvature of the spine

• Lumbar – L1 to L5, the next 5 vertebrae that form the inner curvature of the spine

• Sacrum – the triangular-shaped bone at the base of the spine

• Coccyx – the tailbone

7 true ribs

they are attached to the front of the sternum

3 false ribs

they are attached to the cartilage that joins the sternum

2 floating ribs

they are not attached to the front of the sternum

How is the sternum divided?

• manubrium – the upper portion of the breast bone

• body – the middle portion of the breast bone

• xiphoid process – the lower portion of the breast bone and is made up of cartilage

appendicular skeleton

includes all bones of the upper and lower limbs, plus the bones that attach each limb to the axial skeleton.

Bones of the Pectoral Girdle

• Scapula – the shoulder blades

• Clavicle – the collarbone, which connects the sternum to the scapula

• Acromion – the extension that forms the bony point of the shoulder

Humerus

the bone in the upper arm

Radius

the bone that runs thumb-side of the forearm

Ulna

the bone that runs on the side of the little finger of the forearm

Bones of the Wrist and Hand

• Carpals – the wrist bones

• Metacarpals – the bones in the palm

• Phalanges – the finger and toe bones

Pelvic girdle

the hip or coxal bone; it is formed by the fusion of three bones during adolescence

Illium

the largest part of the hip bone