Animal Communication Final Exam

Animal Communication Final Exam. Good Luck to all.

Active Space

Active Space

refers to the effective area around a pheromone source where a signal is detectable by other individuals.

Example: Male moths release pheromones to attract mates, and the active space is the region in which a female moth can sense and respond to the pheromone, guiding her toward the source.

Concentration Gradient

a gradual change in the concentration of a substance over space.

Example: During anemotaxis, a flying insect may follow a pheromone concentration gradient in the air to locate a potential mate, moving from areas of lower concentration to higher concentration.

Anemotaxis

the ability of an organism to orient itself or navigate in relation to air currents or wind.

Moths use anemotaxis to follow the scent plume of a pheromone released by a potential mate, allowing them to locate each other over a distance.

Vomeronasal Organ

a chemoreceptor organ that detects pheromones and is involved in social and sexual communication in many animals.

Example: Snakes use their vomeronasal organ to sense chemical signals, aiding in the detection of prey or potential mates.

Acoustic Ranging

a method of determining the distance to an object by measuring the time it takes for sound waves to travel to the object and back.

Example: Bats use acoustic ranging through echolocation to navigate and locate prey in the dark.

Hockett's Design Features

characteristics of language proposed by linguist Charles Hockett, including arbitrariness, duality of patterning, and displacement.

Example: Human language exhibits hockettian features, as words are arbitrary symbols with meanings assigned, and sentences are composed of discrete sounds arranged in a structured manner.

Handicap Principle

suggests that certain costly behaviors or traits in animals can be signals of an individual's fitness, as only individuals with high genetic quality can afford such costs.

Example: The elaborate plumage of a peacock is considered a handicap signal, indicating its ability to survive despite the burden of carrying and displaying such ornate feathers.

Social Grooming

a behavior observed in many social animals where individuals engage in mutual grooming to strengthen social bonds and maintain hygiene.

Example: Primates, such as chimpanzees, engage in social grooming to reinforce social connections within the group.

Auditory Deprivation

refers to a lack or reduction of auditory input.

Example: Studying the effects of auditory deprivation involves understanding how individuals, such as those with hearing impairments, adapt to the absence of auditory stimuli in their environment.

Interspecies Mimicry

occurs when one species mimics the appearance or behavior of another species for various reasons, including protection or gaining an advantage.

Example: The viceroy butterfly mimics the appearance of the toxic monarch butterfly, gaining protection from predators that have learned to avoid the poisonous monarch.

Subsong

refers to a phase in the development of bird song where young birds practice and refine their vocalizations.

Example: Juvenile songbirds go through a subsong phase before acquiring the mature and complex songs of their species.

Plastic Song

refers to the ability of some birds to modify or adapt their song in response to environmental or social factors.

Example: Male birds may exhibit plasticity in their songs to attract mates or establish territory boundaries in different contexts.

Selective Attrition

refers to the process by which certain elements of a behavior or trait are reinforced or maintained over time, while others may fade away.

Example: In the context of bird song learning, selective attrition could lead to the preservation of specific song elements that are crucial for communication.

Crystallized Song

refers to the final, stable form of a bird's song that is achieved after the learning and refinement process.

Example: Male birds reach the crystallized song stage when their vocalizations become consistent and recognizable, often used for mating or territorial communication.

Critical/Sensitive Period

a specific developmental stage during which an organism is particularly responsive to certain environmental stimuli.

Example: Songbirds often have critical periods during which they learn and memorize specific songs, and if deprived of these experiences during this period, they may not develop normal song patterns.

Cultural Transmission

involves the passing of information, behaviors, or traditions from one generation to the next through social learning.

Example: The transmission of bird songs from older males to younger males within a population illustrates cultural transmission in avian communication.

Weakly Electric Fish

generate weak electric fields and use electroreception for navigation, communication, and prey detection.

Example: The elephant nose fish is a weakly electric fish that uses electric fields to navigate and locate objects in its environment.

Lek Formation

involves the gathering of males in a specific area for the purpose of attracting females during the mating season.

Example: Male sage grouse gather in a lek to display their courtship behaviors, competing for the attention of females.

Sexual Selection

a process where certain traits or behaviors increase an individual's likelihood of mating and passing on its genes to the next generation.

Example: The elaborate plumage of male peacocks is a result of sexual selection, as females are more likely to choose mates with vibrant and attractive displays.

Cross-Fostering

involves placing the offspring of one species into the care of another species for rearing.

Example: In a study of bird song learning, cross-fostering may involve placing eggs of one species in the nest of another to observe how the adopted species learns and expresses its song.

Reciprocal Altruism

a behavior where individuals provide help to others with the expectation of receiving assistance in return.

Example: Vampire bats engage in reciprocal altruism by regurgitating blood to share with individuals who were unsuccessful in obtaining a meal, with the expectation of receiving similar assistance in the future.

Avian Song Dialects

refer to variations in the songs of bird populations that are distinct to specific regions or groups.

Example: The songs of certain bird species, like the white-crowned sparrow, can vary among populations, creating unique dialects that facilitate communication and recognition within their local communities.

“Dear Enemy” Effect

a behavior where neighboring territorial animals become more tolerant and less aggressive toward familiar neighbors than unfamiliar intruders.

Example: Birds defending territories may exhibit the "dear enemy" effect by reducing aggressive behaviors toward neighboring birds they recognize compared to unfamiliar intruders.

Referential Signaling Pheromones

convey specific information about the sender's identity, status, or other characteristics.

Example: Queen honeybees release pheromones that indicate their reproductive status, influencing the behavior and development of worker bees in the hive.

Hawk-Dove Game

a theoretical model in behavioral ecology that explores the strategies of individuals in conflicts where they can choose between aggressive (hawk) and non-aggressive (dove) behaviors.

Example: In a population of animals competing for limited resources, the hawk-dove game models the balance between aggressive and non-aggressive strategies in the context of resource competition.

Neocortex

the outer layer of the brain in mammals responsible for higher cognitive functions, including sensory perception, spatial reasoning, and language.

Example: Humans have a highly developed neocortex, which enables advanced cognitive abilities and is associated with complex thought processes.

Brain-Body Size Ratio

a measure comparing the size of an animal's brain relative to its body size, often used as an indicator of cognitive capabilities.

Example: Dolphins have a relatively large brain-body size ratio, contributing to their advanced problem-solving abilities and social intelligence.

Infant-Directed Speech

or baby talk, is a speech register characterized by a higher pitch, exaggerated intonation, and simplified vocabulary, often used when speaking to infants.

Example: Caregivers naturally use infant-directed speech to engage and communicate with babies, supporting language development.

Hemispheric Specialization

refers to the division of functions between the left and right hemispheres of the brain, each specializing in certain cognitive tasks.

Example: Language processing is often associated with the left hemisphere, while spatial reasoning may be more dominant in the right hemisphere.

Vervet Monkey Alarm Calls

use different alarm calls to communicate specific threats, such as the presence of predators like eagles, snakes, or leopards.

Example: The vervet monkey's ability to distinguish between different alarm calls helps the group respond appropriately to specific dangers in their environment.

Plasticity in Song Learning

the ability of birds to adjust or modify their songs based on environmental or social factors.

Example: Birds may exhibit plasticity in song learning by incorporating new elements or adjusting their song patterns in response to changes in their surroundings.

Multimodal Signaling

involves the use of multiple sensory modalities, such as visual, auditory, or chemical signals, to convey information.

Example: Fireflies use multimodal signaling by emitting light flashes and releasing pheromones to attract mates during their mating rituals.

Conformist Bias

a tendency to adopt the behavior or preferences of the majority in a group.

Example: In a study on social learning, individuals may exhibit conformist bias by aligning their choices with the majority, even if individual preferences differ.

Social Eavesdropping Hypothesis

suggests that animals may gather information by observing interactions and behaviors between other individuals.

Example: Meerkats may use the social eavesdropping hypothesis by monitoring the alarm calls of other group members to detect potential threats in their environment.

Kaspar Hauser Experiment

refers to a historical case involving a young boy who was raised in isolation and studied to understand the effects of social deprivation on human development.

Example: Kaspar Hauser's experience highlighted the importance of social interaction and environmental stimulation in the development of language and cognitive abilities.

Jamming Avoidance Response

a behavior exhibited by weakly electric fish to adjust their electric signals to avoid interference from the signals of nearby conspecifics.

Example: Electric fish may alter the frequency of their electric signals to prevent signal overlap and maintain effective communication in a group.

Electric Organ Discharge (EOD)

the production of electric signals by certain fish, used for navigation, communication, and locating prey.

Example: Electric eels generate electric organ discharges to navigate and locate prey in their aquatic environment.

Mate Assistance Hypothesis

suggests that certain behaviors, such as providing food or assistance, can function as signals to attract mates.

Example: Male birds offering food to females during courtship may support the mate assistance hypothesis, indicating the male's ability to provide resources for the potential offspring.

Anisogamy Hypothesis

posits that differences in gamete size between males and females drive the evolution of distinct mating strategies.

Example: In species with anisogamy, where females produce larger, energetically costly eggs, males may compete for access to females, while females may be more selective in choosing mates.

Evolutionary Stable Strategy

a behavior that, once adopted by a population, resists invasion by alternative strategies.

Example: The balanced ratio of hawk and dove behaviors in the hawk-dove game represents an evolutionary stable strategy, as a stable proportion of each strategy is maintained over time.

Polygyny Threshold Model

predicts that females may accept polygynous mating if the benefits, such as access to resources or superior genes, outweigh the costs.

Example: Female birds may accept a polygynous mating strategy if a male's territory provides abundant resources, contributing to the success of their offspring.

Territorial Interactions Between Neighbors vs. Strangers

Difference: Territorial interactions between neighbors involve disputes or interactions between individuals from adjacent territories, while interactions between strangers involve individuals from different territories.

Example: Two neighboring birds may engage in territorial disputes over a shared boundary, whereas a bird from a distant territory may encounter a stranger and exhibit different behaviors, such as heightened aggression.

Tape Tutors vs. Live Tutors

Difference: Tape tutors involve learning from recorded stimuli, while live tutors involve learning from live, real-time interactions.

Example: In bird song learning, a young bird exposed to a tape tutor learns from recorded songs, while a bird with a live tutor learns by interacting with another bird producing real-time vocalizations.

Labeled-Line Coding vs. Across-Neuron Pattern Coding

Difference: Labeled-line coding assigns specific neurons to respond to specific stimuli, while across-neuron pattern coding involves the activation of a pattern of neurons to represent a stimulus.

Example: In the sense of taste, labeled-line coding would involve specific taste receptors responding to sweet stimuli, while across-neuron pattern coding would involve a unique pattern of neural activation for the perception of sweetness.

Territory vs. Home Range

Difference: A territory is an actively defended area, while a home range is the entire area an animal occupies in its normal activities, including feeding and mating.

Example: Wolves defend a specific territory for breeding and raising pups, while the home range encompasses a larger area where they roam for hunting and other activities.

Precocial vs. Altricial Development

Difference: Precocial development involves offspring that are born or hatched in an advanced state and can be mobile shortly after birth, while altricial development involves offspring that are born or hatched in a less developed state and require parental care.

Example: Ducklings are precocial, able to walk and swim shortly after hatching, while songbird chicks are altricial, requiring parental care for feeding and protection.

Discrete vs. Graded Signals

Difference: Discrete signals have distinct categories or levels, while graded signals exist on a continuum without clear boundaries.

Example: In animal communication, discrete signals may include specific alarm calls for different predators, while graded signals could be variations in the intensity of a mating display.

Memory-Based vs. Action-Based Learning

Difference: Memory-based learning relies on storing and recalling information, while action-based learning involves the development of motor skills and behavioral responses.

Example: Learning a new song on the piano involves memory-based learning for the sequence of notes and action-based learning for the physical coordination required to play.

Age-Limited vs. Open-Ended Learners

Difference: Age-limited learners have a specific period in which they are receptive to learning certain behaviors or skills, while open-ended learners can continue learning throughout their lives.

Example: Songbirds are age-limited learners, acquiring their species-specific song during a critical period, whereas humans are open-ended learners, able to acquire new skills at any age.

Signal – Cue – Index – Handicap

Difference: Signals convey information intentionally, cues are unintentional indicators, indexes are directly correlated with the information, and handicaps are costly signals indicating the sender's quality.

Example: The bright coloration of a male bird can serve as a signal of its quality (handicap) to potential mates, while unintentional cues might include the timing of its song (cue).

Pheromone-Allomone-Hormone

Difference: Pheromones are chemical signals between members of the same species, allomones affect members of different species, and hormones influence the sender itself.

Example: A queen bee releasing a pheromone to attract worker bees is an example of a pheromone, while a plant emitting a chemical to deter herbivores represents an allomone.

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

Difference: Classical conditioning involves associating stimuli to produce a reflexive response, while operant conditioning involves learning associations between behaviors and their consequences.

Example: In Pavlov's experiment, a dog associating the sound of a bell with food represents classical conditioning, while a rat learning to press a lever for a reward illustrates operant conditioning.

Imitation, Copying, Teaching

Difference: Imitation involves replicating observed behaviors, copying is reproducing a model's actions, and teaching involves intentional instruction by a knowledgeable individual.

Example: A young chimpanzee imitating an older one's tool-use behavior is an example of imitation, while a child copying a dance move from a friend represents copying. Teaching would involve a parent deliberately showing a child how to tie shoelaces.

Habituation vs. Sensitization

Difference: Habituation is a decrease in response to a repeated, harmless stimulus, while sensitization is an increased response to a repeated, potentially threatening stimulus.

Example: Habituation occurs when an animal no longer reacts to a repeated background noise, while sensitization might occur if the noise suddenly becomes louder or more intense.

Mutualism - Commensalism - Parasitism

Difference: Mutualism benefits both interacting species, commensalism benefits one without affecting the other, and parasitism benefits one at the expense of the other.

Example: The relationship between bees and flowers is mutualistic, as bees get nectar while facilitating pollination. Barnacles attached to a whale without harming it represent commensalism, while a tick feeding on a host represents parasitism.

Mating Systems: Monogamy, Polygyny, Polyandry, Polygynandry

Difference: Monogamy involves exclusive mating between one male and one female, polygyny involves one male mating with multiple females, polyandry involves one female mating with multiple males, and polygynandry involves multiple males and females mating within a group.

Example: Penguins often exhibit monogamy, forming long-term pair bonds. Lions practice polygyny, where one dominant male mates with multiple females.

Types of Pheromones (Primer, Information, Releaser Pheromones)

Difference: Primer pheromones trigger physiological changes, information pheromones convey information about the environment, and releaser pheromones elicit immediate behavioral responses.

Example: A primer pheromone may influence the timing of reproduction in a colony of ants, an information pheromone may communicate the presence of a food source, and a releaser pheromone may trigger mating behavior in insects.

Levels of Language: Phonetics – Phonology – Morphology – Syntax – Semantics – Prosody

Difference: Phonetics deals with the physical properties of speech sounds, phonology studies the systematic organization of sounds, morphology examines the structure of words, syntax explores sentence structure, semantics focuses on meaning, and prosody involves the rhythm and intonation of speech.

Example: In the sentence "The cat is sleeping," phonetics analyzes the sounds of each word

Discuss the relative advantages and disadvantages of acoustic, visual and chemical signals in terms of their transmission properties. Consider each of the following properties and give examples where applicable: range, transmission rate, flow around barrier, night use, fadeout time, locatability of sender, and cost to sender.

Acoustic signals offer advantages in range and night use but face challenges in dense vegetation. Visual signals are effective at short distances but limited in low-light conditions, while chemical signals can travel varying distances but are affected by diffusion. Acoustic signals are easily locatable, and visual signals are instant, but chemical signals may pose challenges in dynamic environments. The cost to senders varies, with acoustic signals having moderate energy costs, visual signals being energy-intensive, and chemical signals being metabolically costly.

Why are two voices better than one for emperor penguins? Explain, making reference to mechanism, function, and adaptive value of this trait.

Emperor penguins utilize a duet vocalization involving two voices to synchronize calls, enhancing communication within the colony. This mechanism helps maintain social bonds, coordinate activities, and identify mates in the noisy breeding environment. The adaptive value lies in increased communication efficiency, mate recognition, and overall colony cohesion.

What are some of the costs and benefits of defending a territory?

Defending a territory provides benefits such as access to resources, exclusive mating opportunities, and reduced competition. However, it incurs costs in terms of energy expenditure, increased risk of injury, and time spent patrolling. The trade-off between benefits and costs shapes an individual's decision to defend a territory.

Describe five functions of pheromones and give examples of their use in animal communication.

Pheromones serve various functions, including aggregation (ants following a trail), alarm signaling (bees releasing an alarm pheromone), sexual attraction (moth pheromones), trail marking (ants laying a chemical trail), and territorial marking (wolves marking boundaries). Each function aids in communication and coordination within a species.

In some species of songbirds, like white-crowned sparrows, separate stages of memory-based learning and action-based learning have been identified. Describe these stages, and summarize the experimental findings on which the distinction is based.

In songbirds, memory-based learning involves the memorization of adult conspecific songs during a sensitive period, while action-based learning includes the practice and refinement of vocalizations to match the memorized template. These stages represent the dual processes of acquiring and producing songs.

Some species of songbirds are described as age-limited learners; others are open-ended learners. Explain how these two types differ and their implications for models of song learning.

Age-limited learners have a critical period for learning specific behaviors, while open-ended learners can learn throughout their lives. The distinction influences the adaptability and flexibility of learning strategies in different species.

Why might birds differ in the size of their song repertoires? Compare and contrast three plausible hypotheses.

Birds may differ in the size of their song repertoires due to hypotheses related to mate attraction, territorial defense, and individual recognition. The diversity of songs may enhance attractiveness, signal territorial ownership, and facilitate recognition within a population.

List and describe five experimental procedures that have been used to establish a role of vocal learning in animal communication.

Experimental procedures to establish vocal learning's role include tutor isolation, playback experiments, lesion studies, cross-fostering, and neuropharmacological studies. These methods help researchers understand the neural mechanisms and environmental factors influencing vocal learning.

Why do ravens "yell"? Explain why this behavior is adaptive for certain individuals, and describe the observations and facts that lead to this conclusion.

Ravens use this call only when they find a rich and scarce food source. Yelling attracts other ravens to the carcass. This behavior is adaptive, enhancing collective vigilance, mobilizing group defense, and contributing to the survival of individuals within the group.

What are the five main levels of language structure identified by linguists? For each level, provide an example or an illustration.

Linguists identify levels of language structure, including phonetics (individual speech sounds), phonology (systematic organization of speech sounds), morphology (word structure), syntax (sentence structure), semantics (meaning), and prosody (rhythm and intonation).

What are the functions of alarm calling? Summarize the results of field studies on the alarm calls produced by vervet monkeys. What do these studies tell us about referential signaling and vocal learning?

Alarm calling serves functions such as warning of threats and coordinating defensive actions. Vervet monkey studies demonstrate different alarm calls for different predators, providing insights into referential signaling and vocal learning.

Compare and contrast the development and acquisition of alarm calls by young vervet monkeys with (1) song development in birds like zebra finches and (2) human language. Discuss similarities and differences.

The development of alarm calls in vervet monkeys involves a critical period for learning specific calls for distinct predators. This process shares similarities with song development in birds like zebra finches and human language acquisition, emphasizing the role of exposure and sensory experience.

Some groups of animals, like songbirds, require a period of learning and exposure to their species-specific songs or calls, whereas others, like crickets, do not depend on sensory experience to develop normal communication. What factors might predispose animals to use learned rather than unlearned communication? List five factors, and give examples of animal communication signals where these principles might have played a role.

Factors such as environmental variability, social complexity, individual recognition, adaptability, and specialization predispose animals to use learned communication. These factors contribute to the flexibility and efficiency of communication strategies.

Discuss the similarities and differences between song development in passerine birds and the acquisition of speech in humans. Discuss the role of memory and auditory feedback. What evidence is there to support the idea that each system involves a form of 'biased learning', dependent on specialized neural mechanisms?

Song development in passerine birds and speech acquisition in humans share similarities in terms of a critical period, reliance on auditory feedback, and the involvement of memory. However, they differ in the specificity of learned signals and the extended critical period in humans.

List and describe three sources of evidence for cultural transmission in animals.

Cultural transmission in animals is evidenced by social learning, geographic variation in behavior, and experimentation/innovation. These sources highlight the role of social interactions in transmitting behaviors within populations.

Review the evidence that predator size may be encoded in alarm calls in some songbirds.

Evidence suggests that some songbirds encode predator size in their alarm calls, demonstrating specificity and information content. This encoding aids in coordinating appropriate responses to different-sized threats within a population.