Social Psychology Exam #2

Primacy Effect

When information is presented first in a list it is remembered better. It has disproportionate influence on subsequent judgments, especially if information is ambiguous.

Asch Study

1946 study where two groups were tasked with reading information about a person and forming an impression. Group 1 received words in the order:
Intelligent, industrious, impulsive, critical, stubborn, envious; Group 2 received words in the order: Envious, stubborn, critical, impulsive, industrious, intelligent. Out of the two groups, Group 1 rated the person more favorably. Example of the primacy effect.

Recency Effect

When information presented last in a list is remembered better (especially if there are limited cognitive resources).

Middle

You are less likely to remember information presented in the ______.

Availability Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of events based on their availability in memory. If instances come readily and easily to mind, we assume they are more common or more likely to occur. Can be due to vividness, recency, or distinctiveness.

Heuristics

Shortcuts that are based on associations that come automatically and easily to mind. They allow us to make decisions quickly and efficiently. Can impair person perception, information processing, and judgements.

Schwartz et. al. Study

1991 study where Group 1 was tasked with listing 6 examples of when they were assertive and Group 2 was tasked with listing 12 examples of when they were assertive. In the end, Group 1 scored higher in the assertiveness measure because they could easily think of 6 thinks making them believe that they must be assertive while Group 2 struggled to come up with 12 things. Example of the Availability Heuristic.

Fluency

The feeling of ease associated with processing information. Associated with the Availability Heuristic.

More Fluently

Information processed ________ is judged more favorably.

Less Fluently

Information processed ________ may be more carefully scrutinized.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judgements based on how similar something is to a typical example. Includes failing to attend to base-rate information.

Base-Rate Information

Information about the relative frequency of events (ex: 70% of lawyers).

Belief Perseverance

Clinging to one’s initial conceptions after the basic on which they were formed has been discredited.

Anderson, Lepper, & Ross Study

1980 study where participants were randomly assigned to read a report on firefighters (Group 1’s Report: “Risk-takers make better fire-fighters.” [positive relationship between risk taking and success]; Group 2’s Report: “Cautious people make better fire-fighters.” [negative relationship between risk taking and success]) Participants in both groups then generated explanations for this association. Half of participants in each group were debriefed and told the information was false, the other half was not. All participants then completed a scale about their personal opinions about risk taking and success among fire-fighters. Despite being debriefed and told the information was false, those who were debriefed still reported believing what they were told. Example of Belief Perseverance.

Affective Forecasting

Predicting future emotions, such as whether an event will result in happiness or sadness, and for how long. Occurs due to Adaption-Level Theory and Social Comparison Theory.

Adaption-Level Theory

Our happiness is relative to our prior experience. We adjust our expectations based on our recent experience.

Hedonic Adaption

The human tendency to quickly return to a relatively stable baseline level of happiness despite major positive or negative life changes or events.

Social Comparison Theory

Happiness is relative to others’ attainments or experiences (upward vs. downward comparison).

Gilbert et. al. Study

1998 study that looked at the impact of break-ups on happiness. Found that people who had recently experienced a breakup were just as happy as people who had not. Displays why we are bad at Affective Forecasting.

Immune Neglect

The tendency to underestimate our capacity to be resilient in responding to difficult life events. Our “psychological immune system” allows us to rise above the effects of negative events. Reason why we are bad at Affective Forecasting.

Focalism

Focusing too much on the central aspect of an event (ex: a breakup) and neglecting other aspects of the event or the impact of other events on one’s life.

Attitudes

Positive, negative, or mixed evaluations of people, objects, or ideas

Affective, Behaviors, and Cognitive

ABC’s of Attitudes

Affective

Feelings toward the attitude object. Often linked to values and beliefs.

Behavioral

Actions toward the attitude object (ex: buying a product)

Cognitive

Thoughts toward the attitude object. Based on relevant facts and objective merits.

When do attitudes NOT predict behavior?

1. When the person has mixed attitudes about the attitude object.

2. When attitudes are measured incorrectly.

3. When there are other factors influencing the person’s behavior.

The MODE Model

Fazio’s 1990 dual-processing model of Motivation and Opportunity as Determinants of Processing. Includes the Automatic/ Spontaneous Process and the Controlled/Deliberate Process.

Automatic/ Spontaneous Process

Automatic/ Implicit Attitude —→ Behavior 1

Controlled/ Deliberate Process

Process for when there is motivation or opportunity to process information.

Controlled Attitude ——→ Behavior 2

Explicit/ Controlled Attitudes

Attitudes that we consciously endorse and can openly report.

Implicit/ Automatic Attitudes

Attitudes that are involuntary, uncontrollable, and sometimes unconscious.

Implicit Association Test

Greenwald, Banaji, & Nosek’s test with Phase One which consists of stereotype-congruent word pairs and Phase Two which consists of stereotype-incongruent word pairs. Measures reaction time in Phase Two minus reaction time in Phase One to give to a result of your level on implicit bias (ex: sexism)

Theory of Planned Behavior

Suggests that human behavior is directly predicted by intention, which is shaped by three key factors: attitudes (favorable/ unfavorable evaluation), perceived norms (perceived social pressure), and perceived behavioral control (perceived ease/ difficulty)

Past Behaviors and Habits Model

Focuses on automaticity.

Attitude —→ Behavior X —→ Behavior X —→ Repeated Execution of Behavior X —→ Habit —→ Behavior X

Including a habit or past behavior improves the model suggested by the theory of planned behavior.

Cognitive Dissonance

An aversive/ unpleasant emotional state (arousal).

How can we get rid of Cognitive Dissonance?

Change our behavior, add new cognitive elements/ justifications, and change initial attitude.

Induced Compliance Paradigm

Social psychology technique used to study cognitive dissonance, where individuals are compelled to act against their beliefs, causing them to alter their attitudes to match their behavior.

Festinger & Carlsmith Study

1959 study where participants were asked to engage in a very boring task for 30 minutes and were offered either $1 or $20 to tell a potential participant that it is actually very interesting. Later, the participant is asked to report how much they enjoyed the task (to an unrelated person.) Those who were paid $1 enjoyed it most. Attitude change occurs because there is no incentive or external justification for lying.

“Forbidden Toy” Study (Aronson & Carlsmith)

1963 study where preschoolers were told not to play with a desirable toy, Group 1 receiving a mild threat and Group 2 receiving a severe threat. None of the kids played with the toy. Kids who received the mild threat liked the toy less as compared to those who received the severe threat. The severe threat= external justification (“They told me not to play but I still really want it.”) The mild threat= Internal justification (“I’m not playing with the toy so I must not like it.”) Weeks later while playing in the toy room, kids in the mild threat condition played with the toy less than the kids in the severe threat condition.

Aronson & Mills Study

1959 study where women volunteered to join a group that met to discuss topics related to sex. Had to go through a screening process with 3 conditions: Severe screening (Read aloud vulgar words; read passage describing intercourse), Mild screening (Read aloud mildly embarrassing words, and Control (Read aloud innocuous words). After all being told they passed the screening, they were allowed to listen in on a group discussion that was boring about intercourse among intercourse. Those in the severe group enjoyed the discussion most. Example of effort justification as those in the severe group thought that they had to do a hard and embarrassing task to join the group.

Post-Decisional Dissonance

Dissonance experienced after making a decision (Ex: What if I chose the other one? Was the other one actually better?) Usually reduced by enhancing the attractiveness of your choice and devaluing the rejected options.

Spreading of Alternatives

A cognitive bias where, after making a difficult choice, people rate the chosen option as more desirable and the rejected option as less desirable than they did before.

CD Study

Study of post-decisional dissonance. Participants were asked to rate and rank 10 CDs. Participants are offered their choice of #4 and #5 on their list. After selecting the CD they would like to keep, they are asked to re-rank the 10 CDs (under a cover story). Desirability of the chosen CD increases, but that of the nonchosen CD decreased. Example of spreading alternatives.

Important, Difficult, or Permanent

The more ___________ the decision, the greater the dissonance.

Idealization/ Positive Illusions

The tendency for people to perceive they partner as better than would be expected.

Hypocrisy and Condoms Aronson et. al. Study

1991/1994 study that was given the cover of an AIDS prevention program. Participants were assigned to one of the 4 conditions: Hypocrisy/dissonance (made a video advocating condom use, reminded about failure to use condoms/ described those situations), Commitment-only (made a video advocating for condom use), Mindful-only (reminded about failure to use condoms, and Info-only (composed arguments advocating condom use). The group that was aware of their own hypocrisy (advocated for condom use but not did not use them) bought more condoms after the study.

Persuasion

Changing someone’s attitudes and/or behaviors

Reasons to Understand Persuasion

1. So that you can withstand the persuasive efforts of others.

2. So that you can be a better persuader yourself.

Elaboration Likelihood Model

Dual-process model consisting of either the central route or the peripheral route.

Central Route

Thoughtful, deliberate (more persistent attitude change, better predictor of behavior). Rational high-quality arguments, and evidence.

Peripheral Route

Non-thoughtful, automatic. Attractive people, emotions, catchy, etc.

Motivation to Think Using Central Route

When there are:

-Links to self, relevance

-Messages framed as questions rather than assertions

-Induced uncertainty or surprise effect

Ability to Think Using Central Route

When there is:

-Message repetition

-Slower speaker

-No distraction

-Personal knowledge about the topic

Psychological Reactance

When out freedoms are limited, we want to retain those freedoms (Ex: “You have to believe X!”—→ Less likely to being X). Motivational bias involved in the central route.

Psychological Reactance and Cognitive Dissonance

Motivational biases involved in the central route.

Mere Exposure Effect

Repeated exposure of the attitude object increases perceptual fluency and liking, mostly when there are no strong attitudes regarding the object. Ability bias involved in the central route.

Chinese Character Study

Participants were shown non-sense symbols that resemble Chinese characters. Each symbol was show 0 to 25 times and asked how they felt about each symbol. The more they were shown, the higher they rated the “goodness” of the meaning. Example of the Mere Exposure Effect.

3 Components of Persuasive Messages

1. The who, or the source of the message.

2. The what, or the content of the message.

3. The whom, or the recipient of the message.

Attractiveness

If low thinking (ex: tired, unmotivated), serves as a peripheral cue. Rated more favorably, and those favorable feelings become associated with the message. (ex: attractive person and car insurance) If high thinking (ex: motivated to think) and source characteristic is relevant to the message, serves as a persuasive argument/ central cue. (ex: attractive person and beauty product) Factor of likeability.

Example of Similarity to the Audience

College students were more likely to change their attitudes towards the use of SAT tests in college admissions when a student from their university was said to have written an essay than when a student from another university wrote it (Mackie et al., 1990). Factor of likeability.

Expertise/ Competence

If low thinking (ex: tired, unmotivated), serves as a peripheral cue. Rated more favorably, and those favorable feelings become associated with the message (ex: physician and car insurance). If high thinking (ex: motivated to think) and source characteristic is relevant to the message, serves as a persuasive argument/ central cue (physician and drug). Factor of credibility.

Example of Trustworthiness

Political ad with family members of a candidate endorsing the

Trustworthy

People who speak against their own self-interest are viewed as more ________ than others.

Likeability and Credibility

Factors of the who, or the source of the message

High-quality Messages

Important if the listener is motivated and able to think. Straightforward, clear, and logical (to increase ability). More effective when conclusions are explicit and directly refute opposing views (surprise effect). (ex: “You may have heard… but evidence shows…”)

Vivid Information

Can be more persuasive than statistical facts. (ex: climate change ad)

Identifiable Victim Effect

Tendency to be more influenced by information about one specific individual than by information about large numbers of people (Michael J. Fox having Parkinson’s raised more donations than statistics about millions of people who are affected by the disease.) Factor of vivid information.

Fear-Based Persuasion

Messages that contain vivid information and can be very persuasive. (ex: anti-smoking ads) Most effective when combined with instructions on how to avoid negative outcomes.

Message Discrepancy

How far from the audience’s existing position should the message be?

Risks of Message Discrepancy

Can lead to psychological reactance and recipient may question the credibility of the source.

High-Quality Messages, Vivid Information, Fear-Based Persuasion, and Message Discrepancy

Components of the what, or the content of the message

Need for Cognition

Drive to think deeply. (ex: “I really enjoy a task that involved coming up with new solutions to problems.”) People high in this are more likely to be persuaded by central route messages than by peripheral route messages.

Culture/ Self-Construal

Moderates persuasion by aligning with cultural values and whether individuals view themselves as independent or interdependent.

Ads in the US

Focus on individualism and uniqueness.

Ads in Korea

Focus on relationships with others, tradition, and conformity to group norms.

Reciprocity, Social Validation, Consistency, Liking, Scarcity, and Authority

The 6 Principles of Influence. Effective because they are related to people’s needs and goals.

Reciprocity

Affiliation goals and need to belong. Create and maintain meaningful relationships.

Berry & Kanouse Study

1987 study that revealed that physicians paid in advance were more likely to complete surveys (78%) than those who were promised to be paid afterwards (66%). Example of reciprocity.

78; 66

Physicians paid in advance were more likely to complete surveys (__%) than those who were promised to be paid afterwards (__%).

Example of Reciprocity

A survivor of the Jonestown Massacre only escaped the final slaughter because she had previously refused to accept special favors from Jones when she was in need. (“I knew once he gave me those privileges, he’d have me. I didn’t want to owe him nothing.”)

Door-in-the-Face Technique/ Reciprocal Concessions

Make a big request (most likely to be rejected). Then, change it to a smaller request (concession). When reciprocated by the target- rejection of the first request and then acceptance of the second request. When the requester has compromised, the target may feel the need to compromise also.

Conformity

Being influenced by a group of people.

Informational Social Influence

Conformity motivated by the belief that others are correct. Occurs in ambiguous situations, crisis situations (like when they is not time to think), and in the presence of experts.

Normative Social Influence

Conformity motivated by a fear of social rejection.

Informational Social Influence and normative Social Influence

Why do people conform?

Public Compliance; Private Acceptance

Normative Social Influence leads to ____________ without _____________ (going along with the group even when one does not believe in the group’s actions).

Asch’s Study

1951 study that revealed that 76% of the real participants conformed at least once and 50% of the participants conformed on at least ½ of the trials.

76; 50

Asch’s study that revealed that % of the real participants conformed at least once and __% of the participants conformed on at least ½ of the trials.

Non-Conforming Ally; Private; Public

Conformity is reduced when there is a ___________ and when the response is _______, not _________.

Ambiguous; Cohesive; Status; Increases

Conformity is increased when the task is _________, when the group is __________ and high ________, and when group size ________.

Pluralistic Ignorance

Privately rejecting a norm, but assuming incorrectly that most others accept it, therefore, in turn, going along with it. (ex: “Everyone drinks! Maybe I need to drink more too…”) Consequence of conformity.

Nolan et al. Study

2008 study where California residents were given studies on energy conformation. Study 1 asked, in deciding to conserve energy, how important is it to you that a list of things are also true (factors representing environmental protection, social responsibility, self-interest, and social norm/ conformity). These things were ranked on a scale of most important to least important. In study 2, doorhangers with messages were given, these messages being about environmental protection, social responsibility, self-interest, social norm/ conformity and information only. The social norm had the greatest impact on actual energy consumption. Consequence of conformity.

Foot-in-the-Door Technique

Small favor (likely to be accepted), followed by a larger favor (accepted).

Liking

Consists of attractiveness, similarity, and compliments

Similarity

Activation of kinship cognitions. Component of liking.

Compliments

Positive feedback (+reciprocity principle). Component of liking.

Scarcity

Things that are difficult to possess tend to be perceived as better than things that are easy to possess. Potential loss is a stronger motivator than potential gain.

“Closing Time Effect” Johnco et al. Study

2010 study of 87 heterosexual Australians at a pub. Task consisted of rating the attractiveness of same sex and opposite sex people 3 times throughout the night (9pm, 10:30 pm, and Midnight). Blood alcohol level was measured and controlled. Attractiveness ratings for opposite sex people increased throughout the night and same sex attractiveness lessened. Example of scarcity.

Whitchurch et al. Study

2011 study with the cover story on the effectiveness of Facebook online dating. Undergrad women asked to view Facebook profiled of men and were told that the men viewed their profiles earlier. Conditions were as follows- Condition 1: “You will see the profiles of men who gave you the highest ratings.” Condition 2: “You will see the profiles of men who liked you about average.” Condition 3 (uncertainty): “We don’t know if these men liked you a lot of gave you an average rating.” Men in the uncertainty condition were rated as most attractive. Example of scarcity.