1. Von Neumann Cycle (Fetch-Decode-Execute Cycle) The Von Neumann architecture follows a structured sequence of steps to i process instructions: 1. Fetch: The CPU retrieves an instruction from memory. 2. Decode: The instruction is interpreted. 3. Execute: The CPU carries out the instruction. Components of the CPU involved in the Cycle: • Memory Address Register (MAR): Holds the address of the instruction/data being accessed. • Memory Data Register (MDR): Holds the actual instruction or data fetched. • Control Unit (CU): Manages data flow and execution of instructions. • Program Counter (PC): Keeps track of the address of the next instruction. • Registers: Small memory units inside the CPU that store temporary data. 2. CPU Performance Factors The CPU’s efficiency depends on multiple factors: • Clock Speed: Measured in Hertz (Hz), higher clock speeds allow more instructions to be processed per second. • Number of Cores: More cores enable simultaneous execution of multiple tasks (parallel processing). • Cache Memory: Stores frequently used data for quick access, reducing delays from fetching data from RAM. • Bus Width: Determines how much data can be transferred at once, impacting system speed. 3. Memory & Storage Types Primary Memory (Volatile) • RAM (Random Access Memory): Stores active programs and data; erased when power is lost. • Cache Memory: Built into the CPU for faster access than RAM. • Registers: Even faster, used for immediate data processing. Secondary Memory (Non-Volatile) • Hard Disk Drive (HDD): Uses magnetic storage, slower but cheaper. • Solid-State Drive (SSD): Faster than HDDs, uses flash memory. • Optical Discs (CD/DVD): Used for media and data backup. Virtual Memory • When RAM is full, part of the hard drive is used as “extra” memory. • Slower than real RAM but prevents system crashes. Read-Only Memory (ROM) • Stores permanent data, such as firmware and system boot instructions. 4. Input & Output Devices Input Devices (Used to Enter Data) • Keyboard, Mouse, Touchscreen • Microphone (For Voice Input) • Scanners & Sensors (For Digital Conversion) Output Devices (Display or Provide Results) • Monitor (Visual Output) • Speakers (Audio Output) • Printers (Physical Document Output) Storage Devices (For Data Retention) • USB Flash Drives, External Hard Drives • Cloud Storage (Online Storage Solutions) 5. Operating Systems (OS) The OS is responsible for managing hardware and software resources: • Functions of an OS: • Memory Management: Allocates RAM efficiently. • Process Management: Manages running programs. • File System Management: Organizes storage. • Security & User Management: Provides user authentication. • Examples of OS: • Windows, macOS, Linux (For PCs) • Android, iOS (For Mobile Devices) 6. Networking & Internet Concepts Types of Networks • LAN (Local Area Network): Covers small areas like homes or offices. • WAN (Wide Area Network): Covers large areas, including the internet. • Wired Networks: Use cables (Ethernet) for fast, stable connections. • Wireless Networks: Use Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, or mobile networks. Networking Concepts • IP Address: Unique identifier for devices on a network. • MAC Address: Hardware address of a device. • Protocols: Rules for communication (e.g., TCP/IP for the internet). 7. Cybersecurity & Threats Types of Cyber Threats • Malware (Viruses, Trojans, Ransomware): Harmful software that damages or steals data. • Phishing: Fake emails or messages tricking users into giving personal data. • Hacking & Unauthorized Access: Breaches in system security. Preventative Measures • Firewalls: Block unauthorized access. • Antivirus Software: Detects and removes malware. • Encryption: Converts data into unreadable format for security. • Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA): Adds extra layers of security beyond passwords. Final Thoughts This document covers essential topics related to computer architecture, hardware, memory, networking, and securit

What is the significance of the year 1776 in American history?

It marks the year when the Declaration of Independence was adopted.

What did the Declaration of Independence primarily achieve?

It declared the American colonies' independence from British rule.

Who is known as the 'Father of the Constitution'?

James Madison is known as the 'Father of the Constitution'.

What was the main purpose of the Federalist Papers?

The Federalist Papers aimed to promote the ratification of the United States Constitution.

What does the Bill of Rights consist of?

The first ten amendments to the United States Constitution.

What was the outcome of the Louisiana Purchase?

The United States acquired territory from France, effectively doubling the size of the nation.

What event sparked the beginning of the American Civil War?

The attack on Fort Sumter in 1861 sparked the beginning of the Civil War.

What was the main goal of the Emancipation Proclamation?

To free enslaved people in the Confederate states.

Who delivered the Gettysburg Address?

Abraham Lincoln delivered the Gettysburg Address.

What was the primary focus of the Progressive Era?

To address social issues and improve social justice through reforms.