Bio Foundations Dr Redfearn Final exam

sections 5.1 through 5.8

Define Anatomy

Study of the structure of body parts and their relationship to one another

Define Physiology

Study of the function of body parts; how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities

What is complementarity?

The 5 levels of organization of the human body are…

chemical level, cellular level, tissue level, organ level, organ system level

Define tissue

define organ

define organ system

What is homeostasis?

what is a dynamic steady state?

what is a set point?

what are the 2 major functions of a homeostatic control system

what are the elements of a homeostatic control system

what is the stimulus’s role in the homeostatic control system and what does it connect to?

what is the receptor’s role in the homeostatic control system and what does it connect to?

what is the incoming signal’s role in the homeostatic control system and what does it connect to?

what is the controller’s role in the homeostatic control system and what does it connect to?

what is the outgoing signal’s in the homeostatic control system and what does it connect to?

what is the effector’s role in the homeostatic control system and what does it connect to?

what is the response role in the homeostatic control system and what does it connect to?

how are the receptor, incoming signal, and controller slightly different in chemical homeostatic systems than in other types of control systems

define positive and negative feedback in terms of how common they are in homeostasis

define positive and negative feedback in terms of whether the response reduces or amplifies the stimulus

define positive and negative feedback in terms of whether the system moves the body closer to or further away from the set point

define positive and negative feedback in terms of advantages of the system

what is osmoregulation

what are electrolytes

what is osmotic stress

why can disturbances in water and electrolyte concentrations cause osmotic stress, cell damage, and death?

how does diffusion work?

how does osmosis work?

define osmolarity

define hypertonic

define hypotonic

define isotonic

How do cell water and electrolyte concentrations change in hypertonic and hypotonic environments?

what are Osmoconformers? which animals fall into this category?

what are osmoregulators? which animals fall into this category?

what are the different stresses and imbalances in saltwater fish, and how do they balance them with osmoregulation?

what are the different stresses and imbalances in freshwater fish, and how do they balance them with osmoregulation?

how are fish that can live in both marine freshwater and saltwater environments able to osmoregulate in both types?

what are the differest osmotic stresses and imbalances in terrestrial animals

what is retention

what is filtration

what is reabsorption

how do insects prevent water loss and perform osmoregulation using malphigian tubules and hindgut?

what does the kidney do in osmoregulation?

The kidney performs filtration and absorption in mammals.

how does the kidney perform osmoregulation?

It does this by separating plasma from the blood and reabsorbing most of the electrolytes, water, and non-waste molecules into the blood while excreting waste products in urine.

define kidney

an essential organ in vertebrates that filters blood to remove waste products, regulates electrolyte balance, and maintains fluid homeostasis.

define renal artery

a blood vessel that carries oxygenated blood from the heart to the kidneys.

define renal vein

a blood vessel that carries deoxygenated blood away from the kidneys to the inferior vena cava.

define ureter

a tube that carries urine from the kidneys to the bladder.

define urinary bladder

a hollow muscular organ that stores urine before excretion.

what are the 3 major regions of the kidney?

The renal cortex, renal medulla, and renal pelvis.

what happens in the cortex of the kidney

It is the outer region where filtration occurs and nephron structures such as glomeruli are located.

what happens in the medulla of the kidney

The medulla is responsible for concentrating urine and regulating water balance.

what happens in the renal pelvis of the kidney

The renal pelvis collects urine from the renal calyces and transfers it to the ureter for excretion.

what is a nephron and how does it function

nephrons are filtering units. They use active transport, diffusion, and osmosis to reabsorb filtered plasma back into the blood.

what is a medullary gradient, and how does it function

an osmotic gradient of electrolytes that increases as you move inward from the cortex to the medulla.

what are the 5 sections of the nephron in order that pre-urine flows through it

1. Renal corpuscule

2. proximal tubule

3. loop of henle

4. distal tubule

5. collecting duct

what the renal corpuscle does and how it does it work

it is responsible for filtering and removing plasma from the blood (this is called filtrate or pre-urine)

What the glomerulus is and what force “pushes” filtration in the glomerulus

The glomerulus is a series of tiny holes that only allow blood, plasma, electrolytes, and the small molecules in it to leave. The force that pushes filtration is called blood pressure

how imbalances of blood pressure can cause kidney problems

Long-term high blood pressure damages the corpuscles and can cause kidney failure.

Short-term low blood pressure stops the filtration process and allows toxic waste products to build up in the body

what is obligatory reabsorption and where in the nephron does it happen?

it is the process that involves automatically reabsorbing 90% of the pre-urine in the proximal tubule and loop of Henle.

what do the proximal tubule and loop of Henle do during obligatory reabsorption and explain how does it happen in each section

The proximal tubule uses active transport, diffusion, and osmosis to selectively reabsorb 2/3 of all materials in the pre-urine (some water and electrolytes, all nutrients and vitamins). The loop of Henle reabsorbs water and electrolytes entirely by diffusion and osmosis.

What are the descending limb and ascending limb? How is reabsorption different in each limb?

The first section (descending limb) is only permeable to water. The second section (ascending limb) is only permeable to electrolytes.

what is regulated reabsorption and where in the nephron does it happen?

It is the process that allows the body to absorb the remaining 10% of pre-urine, which is regulated by homeostasis.

what does the distal tubule do in regulated reabsorption and how it is regulated by aldosterone levels

it reabsorbs the electrolytes sodium and chloride by active transport. Aldosterone increases when sodium levels are low, and decreases when sodium levels are high.

what does the collecting duct do in regulated reabsorption and how it is regulated by ADH levels

the collecting duct reabsorbs water. ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) regulates how much water is absorbed. A high amount of ADH is released when water levels are low and decreases when water levels are high.

what is gas exchange and why must animals acquire oxygen and excrete carbon dioxide

gas exchange is the process of oxygen moving into the body and carbon dioxide leaving it by diffusion. Animals require oxygen for respiration and must secrete carbon dioxide to maintain homeostasis

what is a respiratory surface

the region where gas exchange occurs.

what is the respiratory system

the organ system responsible for gas exchange

what is circulation

the process of transporting blood throughout the body, delivering oxygen and nutrients while removing waste products.

what is a hemolymph

a fluid that serves as the circulatory medium in some invertebrates

why are the respiratory surface, respiratory system, circulation, blood and hemolymph, and the circulatory system needed to move oxygen and carbon dioxide gases

These components are essential for efficient gas exchange, enabling oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide removal from bodily tissues, thereby supporting cellular respiration and metabolism.

which rules govern the movement of gases into and through the body

Dalton's Law of Partial Pressures and Fick's Law of Diffusion

what are pressure gradients and partial pressure

Pressure gradients refer to the difference in pressure between two areas, while partial pressure is the pressure exerted by an individual gas in a mixture, contributing to the overall pressure.

what is Fick’s law of diffusion?

the physical law that governs how fast molecules diffuse

How do surface area (A), diffusion distance (D), and pressure gradients influence the rate of diffusion?

As surface area increases, the rate of diffusion increases

what are the 2 major tasks of the respiratory system?

ventilation and gas exchange with the environment

Which direction do oxygen and carbon dioxide move through a respiratory surface?

oxygen should always diffuse onto the blood at the respiratory surface, while CO2 should always diffuse into the environment at the respiratory surface.

how do ventilation and gas exchange happen in fish?

Fish ventilate using gills. External gills are ventilated by water currents, while internal gills are ventilated by the body structure of the respiratory system.

how do buccal pumping and ram ventilation work?

Buccal pumping is when the fish draws water into its mouth and pushes it out over the gills. Ram Ventilation happens when the fish swims with its mouth open allowing water to flow directly over the gills.

what is the basic structure of a gill and how do they increase surface area/ decrease diffusion distance

Gills are divided into several arches, and each arch has thousands of tiny gill filaments. This creates a high surface area, allowing a higher rate of diffusion.

how do ventilation and gas exchange happen in terrestrial invertebrates

how is the tracheal system structured? How is it ventilated?

what is the spiracle for?

how does ventilation and gas exchange happen in terrestrial vertebrates with lungs?

how are the lungs structured?

what is the alveolus?

how is the tracheal system ventilated?

how does the diaphragm create air pressure gradients during inhalation and exhalation? how do these gradients move air?

how and where is ventilation regulated in humans?

what is the complete homeostatic control system that regulates ventilation and what kind of feedback does the system use?

how are oxygen and caarbon dioxide carried in blood?

oxygen is transported bound to hemoglobin. Carbon dioxide is transported bound to carbonic anhydrase

what does hemoglobin do?

what does hemocyanin do?

what does carbonic anhydrase do?

how does carbonic anhydrase and carbonic acid mean that we can regulate our blood pH by changing our breathing rate?

describe how gas exchange occurs in a typical invertebrate. why does that system mean that they do not need a complex circulatory system?

how does an open circulatory system work?