JOUR 1002 Final Exam

Robert E. Lee

Proposed the first journalism classes at Washington and Lee University in 1869.

The Journalist's Creed

A foundational document written by Walter Williams defining journalistic values.

What was the first journalism school

University of Missouri

Joseph Pulitzer

Endowed the journalism school at Columbia University, known for emphasizing hands-on learning.

Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications

117 schools accredited by the Council on Education in Journalism and Mass Communications

George Creel

Led the Committee on Public Information during WWI to generate public support for the war.

CPI was in charge of

propaganda campaign to gain public support for the war. Techniques they used were

• four minute men

• posters (I WANT YOU) James Montgomery Flagg

• Promoted war bands, food conservation, labor contributions

Four Minute Men

Volunteers who delivered short speeches as part of WWI propaganda.

Propoganda Types

Front Propaganda

Homefront Propaganda

Foreign Propaganda

• British Propaganda: more subtle; had info monopoly by cutting telegram cables

• German propaganda: cruder; freedom of press abolished

Response from Media of the War

• Mixed reaction from press; some opposed entry (e.g., socialist press, William Randolph Hearst)

• Others like SS McClure and Ida Tarbell supported war

• The black press, the Socialist press, the German American press and William Randolph Hearst didn’t think it made sense to join WWI. 

Censorship and Accreditation

• Reporters had to:

  • Swear to tell truth, avoid aiding the enemy

  • Submit biography

  • Pay $1,000 for supplies

  • Post $10,000 bond for ethical conduct

  • Pay $500 for assistant and car (or buy their own)

  • Wear green armband with "C" (Correspondent)

What notable event involved Chicago Tribune journalist Floyd Gibbons and the Lusitania?

Floyd Gibbons of the Chicago Tribune predicted a U.S. ship would be torpedoed, survived the attack on that ship, and wrote about it. The Lusitania, a British passenger ship, was sunk by German torpedoes, influencing U.S. public opinion during WWI.

What was the press leak on March 1 1917 about?

• Press leak on March 1 leaks an explosive telegram to associated press 

• Cable from Germany to Mexico said if mexico invades US germany would give New Mexico Arizona and Texas 

Message the government wanted Americans to follow during the war

• Buy liberty bonds, follow food policies, eat less, conserve more, supply the labor that's needed 

How did an AP reporter turn Archie Roosevelt’s May 1918 injury into a story despite restrictions?

After Archie Roosevelt was wounded in May 1918, an AP reporter, unable to quote anyone but generals, asked about medals instead of the injury. This allowed him to write a story focused on military honors, which ultimately overshadowed the injury itself.

Espionage Act

Federal law passed in 1917 to prevent interference with military operations.

Sedition Act

An act used to suppress dissent during WWI.

What happened when Heywood Broun clashed with General Pershing during WWI?

Heywood Broun couldn’t report on U.S. troops arriving in Europe, so he wrote a story exposing their lack of supplies. The report caused public uproar and forced a reform of the military supply chain. As a result, Broun lost his press credentials and a $10,000 bond.

Legal Crrackdowns on Free Speech cases

• Schenk v. United States (1919): Anti-war leaflet case, conviction upheld

• Eugene Debs: Jailed for anti-war speech, released in 1921

• Abrams v. US: Political pamphlets case

After WWI

• CPI disband

• George Creel returned to journalism, CA governor position left to Upton Sinclair

• Congress repealed sedition act kept espionage act

• key theme: fighting for freedom abroad while suppressing it at home

Jazz Age/ Roaring 20’s Newspaper Growth

• 1850–1900: Readership multiplied 20x

• By 1910: ~2,200 daily newspapers

• Later, rise of radio/TV began to cut into print

In Jazz Age Tabloids focused on:

• Crime

• Gossip

• Celebrities

• Flashy headlines

Key Tabloids

• New York Daily Mirror (1924):

  • Created by William Randolph Hearst

  • Raided staff from other papers

  • Died in 1962

• Evening Graphic (1924):

  • Emil Gauvreau, ex-Hartford Courant editor

  • Printed on pink paper

  • Owned by Bernarr Macfadden (eccentric health nut)

    • Launched True Detective, True Romance

    • Ran for president, jumped from plane on 84th birthday

    • Advocated deporting poor/illegal immigrants

    • Known for sex scandals, photo illustrations, sometimes fabricated stories

Movies that depicted Journalism

• The Front Page / His Girl Friday

  • Journalists portrayed as flawed but heroic

  • Ethics were flexible, but story came first

TIME Magazine

• Founded: March 3, 1923 by Harry Luce and Brit Hadden

• Innovations:

  • No editorial page or bylines

  • Introduced “Timspeak”: elevated pace of life, new words from foreign languages

    • Examples: kudos (Greek), pundit (Hindi), tycoon (Japanese)

  • Redefined news: opinionated, fast-paced

• Legacy: Inspired People Magazine, Sports Illustrated, Life Magazine

• Luce: Expanded into radio, TV; created TimeWarner

Other Magazines Luce created:

LIFE Magazine

• Photojournalism showcase

• Huge profit center

Sports Illustrated

• Launched: August 16, 1954

• Luce wasn't a sports fan

• Financial losses until 1970s

• Eventually read by 23 million weekly

The New Yorker (Feb 21, 1925)

• Founded by Harold Ross

• Reflected metropolitan life; fact-checking pioneer

• Focused on NY elite

• Famous contributors: Charles Addams (cartoonist), John Hersey ("Hiroshima")

Early Pioneers of the Radio

• Nathan Stubblefield: Broadcasted in KY (1890); marine broadcast in DC (1902); patented in 1916

• Guglielmo Marconi:

  • Used Tesla’s induction coil to transmit signals

  • First transatlantic telegraph (1901)

  • Named inventor of radio (1904), but Tesla’s patents restored (1943)

Titanic Disaster Impact

• Radio used to call for help → led to regulations:

  • Radio Act of 1912: Required ship radios

  • Radio Act of 1927: Airwaves belong to the public, government can’t dictate content, but can regulate distribution

  • Communications Act of 1934: Created FCC (Federal Communications Commission)

Key Radio Corporate Players

• KDKA (1920): First major station (Pittsburgh), covered presidential election

• Post-WWI: Navy patents released to private industry

• AT&T: Built 26-station network; sold to RCA

• RCA (with GE): Created NBC Red (entertainment) and NBC Blue (culture/news); Blue became ABC

• CBS: Started by Columbia Phonography, grew under William S. Paley

Hindenburg Disaster (1937):

A catastrophic airship accident that led to increased public scrutiny of air travel and advancements in broadcast journalism, particularly in live reporting. Covered live by Herbert Morrison

War of the Worlds (1938)

Orson Welles’ broadcast caused panic; mass media’s power to manipulate

Biltmore Agreement (1933)

• Papers publish radio schedules 

• Networks eliminate news services 

• Stations limit news broadcasts 

• press radio burea provides news 

Father Charles Coughlin

• Detroit priest, began political commentary in 1930

• Anti-Semitic, pro-Hitler, banned by Church in 1942

• Lesson: Radio could be manipulated; audience slow to recognize misinformation

George Strock

Published the first photo of a dead U.S. soldier in 1943.

WWII Reporting differences from WWI

• Less censorship

• More reporters on the ground

• Media had more freedom and responsibility

Dorothy Thompson

• First western journalist to interview Hitler (1931)

• Expelled from Germany; became national hero

• Later blacklisted for Palestine reporting

Edward R. Murrow

• CBS radio journalist: “This is London”

• Covered Blitz, helped shape US public opinion

• Met with FDR post–Pearl Harbor (but didn’t report the attack himself)

Ernie Pyle

• Roving war correspondent, Pulitzer winner

• Focused on ordinary soldiers

• Syndicated in 100+ papers, 9 million daily readers

• Killed by Japanese sniper in Okinawa (1945)

Bill Mauldin

• Cartoonist, created Willie and Joe

• Clashed with Patton over realistic depictions

• Pulitzer winner

Andy Rooney

• Stars and Stripes writer, later 60 Minutes

• Built camaraderie with Walter Cronkite

Pearl Harbor

• 5 battleships sunk, 2344 Americans killed

• US censored extent of damage for morale

• UK framed as US victory

John Steinbeck

American author known for works such as "The Grapes of Wrath" and "Of Mice and Men." He highlighted social issues through his storytelling. Criticized war coverage for dishonesty

D-Day

• 558 accredited reporters

• Courier services used

• 700,000 words transmitted on Day 1

• Ed Kennedy: Broke embargo on German surrender → fired

Televisions Impact on Society

• Global Influence: Shrunk the world, laid groundwork for internet, smartphones, Zoom.

• Cultural Significance: Evolutionary—people remember where they were during major events (JFK assassination, 9/11).

• Electronic Fireplace: Television became central to home life.

Bulldog Edition

A term used for smaller, tabloid-style newspapers.

FDR’s Fireside Chats

Radio broadcasts by President Franklin D. Roosevelt that fostered a connection with the public.

Philo Farnsworth

• "Father of Television"

• At 14, conceptualized scanning electrons to display images

• 1927: First complete electronic TV system

• 1934: Demonstrated working television—screen was a foot in diameter

• Battled RCA for patent recognition (won)

• Elma Farnsworth (wife) worked with him

• 1920s-30s: No modern conveniences (computers, phones, cars)

Industry Players in TV

• AT&T, Westinghouse, RCA, GE, Bell Labs (like "Lumon Industries" from Severance)

• 1936 Olympics: First cable broadcast in Germany

• 1939 World’s Fair: David Sarnoff predicts TV will impact all aspects of life

• WWII delayed development; FCC approved first licenses in 1941

• 1946: 6 stations → 1970: 900 stations

• TV Adoption in Homes:

  • 1950: 9%

  • 1960: 87%

  • 1969: 95%

Edward R. Murrow Broadcasting

• See It Now (1952–1957), 4 Emmy Awards

• Skeptical of TV, came from print journalism

• Covered hard-hitting stories like McCarthyism and migrant labor

• Left TV in 1961; died of lung cancer in 1965

• Known for exposing Joseph McCarthy on-air in 1954

• “We must not confuse dissent with disloyalty.”

Fred Friendly

• Joined CBS 1950

• Executive producer of CBS Reports

• Harvest of Shame (1960) exposed poor conditions for migrant workers

• Resigned from CBS in 1966 over Vietnam hearings being preempted by The Lucy Show

• Helped found PBS; taught at Columbia Journalism School

1960 Nixon-Kennedy Debate

• First televised debate, shifted campaign strategies

• Kennedy looked confident; Nixon, sick and pale—TV viewers favored Kennedy

• 4 million voters swayed

• Kennedy used TV like FDR used radio

JFK Assasination (1963):

• As the World Turns interrupted at 1:40 PM

• Walter Cronkite went live at 2 PM

• Coverage was raw, emotional, and non-stop for four days

• 180 million watched the funeral

Walter Cronkite

• CBS anchor 1962–1981

• Nicknamed “Most Trusted Man in America”

• Covered JFK’s death, space program, and Vietnam

• Personal advocate for the space program

• Covered moon landing—125–150 million viewers

• Also covered Challenger explosion

24- Hour News and Cable TV

• Satellite Communication:

  • 1962: JFK signs Communications Satellite Act

• Rise of Cable News:

  • 1980: CNN by Ted Turner

  • 1996: Fox News and MSNBC launched

  • Technology makes news instantaneous, enhances press freedom

  • Newton Minnow: TV is both a “global village” and a “vast wasteland”

Vietnam War and TV

• First war televised in real time

• Public opinion influenced by nightly news coverage

• Deepened skepticism toward government narratives

Tet Offensive

• Massive attack; military success but psychological defeat.

• Cronkite visits and calls for U.S. to withdraw.

• Changed public perception.

My Lai Massacre

• 500+ civilians executed by U.S. troops.

• Initially underreported.

• Seymour Hersh broke story after grant and created his own wire service.

• Lt. William Calley Jr. convicted.

Red Scare and McCarthyism

• Fear of Communism:

  • McCarthy blamed State Dept. for loss of China

  • Children did "Duck and Cover" drills

  • Propaganda cartoons, bomb shelters, loyalty oaths

• Joseph McCarthy (1908–1957):

  • Elected to Senate 1946

  • Accused many with no evidence (Wheeling speech: “205 communists”)

  • Targeted Hollywood, government officials, and journalists

  • Used fear and media competition to spread lies

  • Army hearings (1954) televised; he was exposed and censured

  • Died of alcoholism

Murrows Response to McCarthyism

• See It Now episode on Milo Radulovich

• Exposed unfair branding of innocents as security risks

• Famous rebuttal aired April 5, 1954

• “We must not confuse dissent with disloyalty.”

Roy Cohn

• McCarthy's assistant

• Later mentored Donald Trump

• Represented mobsters

• Taught aggressive tactics: deny, deflect, attack

Civil Rights Movement Key Themes

• The Civil Rights Movement was a visual, television, and print story.

• Images and press coverage helped awaken the American public and global community to racial injustice.

• The Black Press laid the groundwork for the movement.

• Legal and political victories were often fueled by public reaction to media exposure.

Martin Luther King Jr.

• Inspired by Gandhi’s nonviolent movement.

• Masterful use of press coverage to highlight segregation.

• Wrote Letter from Birmingham Jail.

• Led the Montgomery Bus Boycott.

• Gave the “I Have a Dream” speech at the March on Washington (Aug 28, 1963).

• Named Time magazine's Man of the Year; awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

New Journalism

A style of journalism developed in the 1960s, emphasizing narrative storytelling.

Walter Cronkite

CBS anchor regarded as 'Most Trusted Man in America' during the Vietnam War.

Women’s Media Center

Founded to address gender inequality in media representation.

Ms. Magazine

A feminist magazine founded by Gloria Steinem that addressed women’s issues.

Silent Spring

Rachel Carson's book that exposed environmental issues related to pesticides.

The Civil Rights Movement

A societal effort aiming for racial equality and justice in the U.S.

Simeon Booker

• Black journalist who covered Emmett Till’s murder.

• Helped bring national attention to the brutality of the South.

Emmet Till

• 14-year-old boy from Chicago murdered in Mississippi.

• Open casket funeral exposed brutality to the public.

• Trial and acquittal by all-white jury sparked outrage.

New York Times v. Sullivan

A landmark Supreme Court case protecting press freedom in libel cases.

• Landmark libel case: public officials can't win libel suits unless they prove actual malice.

• Protected press freedom and allowed aggressive civil rights coverage.

• Sparked by an ad supporting MLK.

• White jury originally awarded $5,000.

• Case led to unanimous Supreme Court decision.

Little Rock Nine

A group of nine African American students who integrated Central High School in Little Rock, Arkansas.

University of Mississippi Integration

• James Meredith’s integration faced riots.

• Journalist Paul Guihard was killed.

• Dan Rather describes violent scenes as war-like.

Freedom Riders (1961)

• Black and white students rode buses to protest segregation.

• Violently attacked in Montgomery and Birmingham.

• Journalist Tom Langston beaten; only one photo survived.

Birmingham Movement

• Children’s Crusade: 700+ arrested.

• Bull Connor's brutality backfires.

  • Dogs, firehoses used on children.

  • Over 200 reporters documented the violence.

• JFK Address (June 11, 1963): response to Birmingham events.

Quote: “The Civil Rights Movement should thank God for Bull Connor—he helped it as much as Abraham Lincoln.”

Selma and Bloody Sunday (1965)

• Civil Rights marchers were brutally attacked by state troopers and local law enforcement while attempting to march from Selma to Montgomery, Alabama, to protest the denial of voting rights and the murder of activist Jimmie Lee Jackson. 

Watergate Scandal

• Stemmed from Pentagon Papers leak (Daniel Ellsberg).

• Supreme Court ruled in favor of press: can’t censor public-interest stories.

• Nixon created “The Plumbers” to stop leaks.

• Led to Nixon’s downfall and deep mistrust of government.

• Press became emboldened to hold power accountable.

"We don’t just record what people say—we uncover the truth."

Vietnam War TV significance

• First television war and most unpopular war in U.S. history.

• Sparked widespread distrust in government.

• 58,000 U.S. casualties, 1–3 million Southeast Asian casualties.

• Draft resistance and protests were common.

Media Coverage in Viet War

• Expanded nightly news (from 15 to 30 minutes).

• Graphic images became the norm.

• Napalm Girl (1972) by Nick Ut won Pulitzer.

Young Journalist (Young Turks)

• David Halberstam (NYT), Malcolm Browne (AP), Neil Sheehan (UPI)

• Clashed with older journalists.

• Focused on truth over government PR.

Zippo Lighter Story

• Morley Safer (CBS) covers U.S. Marines torching village in Cam Ne.

• CBS aired footage despite backlash.

New Journalism

• emerged in the 1960s as a reflection of anti-war protests, the hippie movement, and counterculture.

• Traditional newspapers were seen as fat, lazy, happy, boring, and stodgy.

• Long-form narrative storytelling became prominent.

Neil Sheehan:

•  Wrote The Bright Shining Lie about the Vietnam War.

Tom Wolfe:

• The epitome of New Journalism, coining the term "New Journalism".

  • The Kandy-Kolored Tangerine-Flake Streamline Baby: His early work exploring status in America.

  • Profiled Muhammad Ali and astronauts.

Truman Capote

• Wrote In Cold Blood, a groundbreaking narrative that blurred the lines between fact and fiction.

Gay Talese

• Known for vivid, long-form reporting.

  • "Frank Sinatra Has a Cold" in Esquire became a landmark in the genre.

Gonzo Journalism

A style of journalism that blends facts with fiction, notably used by Hunter S. Thompson. style blending fiction with factual reporting.

• Most famous for Hell's Angels.

Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test

Tom Wolfe’s exploration of the psychedelic culture of the 1960s.

Civil Rights Act (1964)

Legislation that outlawed discrimination based on race, color, religion, sex, or national origin.

Voting Rights Act (1965)

A landmark piece of federal legislation that prohibits racial discrimination in voting.

Helen Gurley Brown

• Wrote Sex and the Single Girl (1962) — challenged norms around sex, marriage, and children

• Became editor of Cosmopolitan in 1965

• Revolutionized women's media by talking about sex openly

• Faced backlash from traditional media

• Sparked cultural reactions—e.g., women burning bras in protest

Joan Didion

• New journalism and essayist 

• 1950s won an essay contest sponsored by vogue 

• Saturday evening post 

• Life magazine 

• New Yorker 

• John Gregory Dunn and her moved to hollywood in the 60s and were screen writers wrote a star is born 

• Got a national reputation taking a clear eyed but dark view changes in America 

• Wrote about disorder 

• Her husband died 

Gloria Steinem

• Wrote for Esquire and New York in the 1960s

• Went undercover at Playboy Clubs to expose sexism

• Co-founded Ms. Magazine (1972)

  • Published “We Had an Abortion”

  • Covered domestic violence (1976)

• Attended Smith College, traveled globally

• Freelance writer in NYC, often dismissed as “girl reporter”

• Turned to activism after 1969 NY abortion hearings

• Helped 50 women publicly declare their abortions to push for legalization

Copy Boy

• Andrea Mitchell, NBC News 

• They said she could do public relations and advertizing but she can’t be in the newsroom 

• A copy boy would rip the wire copy and bring headlines to the anchormen and do quick phone interviews 

Barbara Walters

• Wanted to be a journalist in the 1950s

• Started as a secretary, became a writer for CBS Morning Show & Today

• Breakthrough: Covered Jackie Kennedy’s trip to Pakistan/India

• Comfortable with celebrities—father was a nightclub owner

• First woman to anchor a network evening newscast

• Interviewed every U.S. president & first lady

• Sat down with world leaders & Hollywood stars

• Co-hosted The View

• First female anchor, highest-paid at the time—faced backlash

• Known for her interview with Donald Trump

John Hersey

• Hiroshima was a groundbreaking work in narrative journalism.

Norman Mailer

•  The Armies of the Night won the National Book Award and Pulitzer Prize for its mix of personal narrative and history.

Sexism in Journalism

Gender inequality in the newsroom, often leading to disparities in coverage.