Paradigm shifts
Major advances in science are rare but scientific revolutions result in _____.
Thomas Kuhn
Theorized that ...
Major advances in science are rare.
Scientific revolutions result in paradigm shifts.
Evolutionary theory
the central unifying theory of the biological sciences
inheritance
Evolutionarily meaningful, genetic change affects future generations via ____
evolutionary medicine
-Functional approach to medicine -Considers functions of symptoms rather than covering them all w/ medicine
Baby Fae
-Died after receiving baboon heart transplant -Surgeon said that he didn't use chimpanzee heart instead bc he didnt subscribe to evolutionary bio
Empedocles
-Body parts arise independently from the ground -Spontaneous generation
Anaximander
-Among the first to develop a philosophy of a natural world governed by natural laws -Methodological naturalism -Imagined earth as flat covered disk w/ moon and sun revolving around it
Aristotle
-Hypothesis must be tested -Organisms are unchanging w/ fixed properties
Scala Naturae
Aristotles system for classifying organisms
Carolus Linnaeus
founder of taxonomy
interbreeding
Linnaeus created a nested classification system where _____ separated groups of organisms.
Systema Naturae
Famous book by Linneaus
invariable
Linneaus catalogues species as _____ but hybrids casted doubt. He changed his position later in life but was not able to account for changes.
Isaac Newton
-Universal gravitation -Three laws of motion
Gradualism
Jame's Hutton's major theory
slow, continuous
Gradualism: ___, _____ processes result in profound geological effects
Uniformitarianism
Charles Lyell added to gradualism with his theory of...
George Cuvier
First major paleontologist
dissimilar
the deeper the strata, more _____ life
extinction
Cuvier used palentology to discover _____
catastorophism
what evolutionary theory did Cuvier support due to his findings in the fossil record?
Erasmus Darwin
-Evolutionary change from a “single living filament”. -Struggle for existence
Robert Chambers
Species have changed over time.
Change is slow, gradual and unlinked to catastrophes. (person)
Jean-Baptise Lamark
Proposed 1st model of evolution
Inheritance of acquired characteristics
Lamark's proposed mechanism of evolution
Patrick Matthew
-Proposed his own theory of evolution by natural selection. -On Naval Timber and Arboriculture (1831)
those best suited to their environment
According to Matthew, what individuals will be selected over others.
Limited, traits, well-adapted
Patrick Matthew's Theory...
Resources are _______.
Individuals differ in _______ that allow them to garner resources.
Difference leads to organisms that are _______ to their environments.
H.M.S Beagle
Charles Darwin was a naturalist on what ship?
Thomas Malthus
-Populations can grow exponentially over short period -Over long period, disease, limited resources wars, etc. curb population growth
artificial
Darwin observed ____ selection as well as natural selection.
fact, differential, fare better
Darwin's Observations... Variation in morphology and behavior is _____. Variation leads to _______ survival. Some variants _________ than others.
Alfred Russell Wallace
Scientist with similar observations of natural selection to Darwin's
On the Origin of Species
Darwin's published book about Natural Selection
Descent with modification
Darwin's main contribution to evolutionary theory (I'm not talking about Natural Selection)
groups within groups
Darwins branching tree of life introduced the concept of...
changed
common ancestors, branching
gradual and slow
proportions of alleles
Natural Selection
Five main parts to evolution:
Organisms have _____ over time.
All organisms are derived from ________ by a process of ______.
Change is _______ (rates can be variable).
Evolution occurs by changes in ________.
The mechanism for the evolution of adaptations is _________.
traits
parents
survival, reproduction
frequency
interbreed
Five main parts to natural selection:
Members of a population vary in ______.
Traits are inherited from _______.
Reproductive potential and trait variation leads to differential ______ and ________.
Differential survival and reproduction leads to a shift in the ________ of traits.
With time, parent and daughter species can no longer ________.
evolution
changes in gene (allele) frequencies in a population over time
natural selection
differential (non-random) survival of genes
adaption
inherited traits that enhance survival and reproduction in a given environment, compared to other traits
existing variety
Natural selection among ______ _______only
do not
Variants ____ arise because they are needed
benefit
no
extant
more complex
perfectly
individuals
To Avoid Misconceptions...
Natural selection does NOT occur in order to ______ a population or species.
Evolution has ___ goal.
NO ______ species can be considered to be more evolutionarily advanced or higher than others.
Natural selection does NOT necessarily make organisms _______.
Natural selection does NOT result in ______ adapted species. 6.________ do NOT adapt
mutation, natural selection
____ and ______ result in adaptive evolution.
evolutionary synthesis
The _________ provides the foundation for modern evolutionary biology. Contributions by geneticists, systematists, and paleontologists reconciled natural selection with genetics.
1870's
During the _______ most scientists accepted the reality of evolution by descent from common ancestors. Natural selection was generally rejected.
1930s
Alternative, non-Darwinian hypotheses were rejected by the mid-______.
evolutionary biologists
________ have developed methods to reconstruct the tree of life.
phylogenetic relationships
Reconstruction allows for estimating __________ among organisms.
hypothesis
Reconstruction relies upon deductive logic and ________ testing.
classification, naming
Phylogenetic analysis has historically been closely associated with the _______ and _______ of organisms
Jorge Luis Borges
-Celestial Emporium of Benevolent Knowledge
Those that belong to the emperor
Embalmed ones
Those that are trained
Suckling pigs
Mermaids
Fabulous ones
Genus name and specific epithet
What are the components to a scientific name
increasing inclusiveness
Classification is a This is a hierarchical system because species are placed in an ascending series of groups of ________ _______.
recent
Closely-related species are descended from a relatively _____ common ancestor.
evolution
Under Darwing branching "tree of life" classification can portray the history of _______
interior nodes
-branching points on a phylogenetic tree -Represents hypothetical species or population
root
represents common ancestor to all member of the tree
taxa
named group of organisms
character states
-used to infer patterns of ancestry and descent among populations -alternate forms of a particular character -ex: long vs short necks
outgroup
-Provides root to tree -Group that split off earlier in evolutionary history and does not share all characters of ingroup
sister taxa
-Closest relatives -Descended from immediate common ancestor on phylogenetic tree
polytomy
-Portion of a tree that has 3 or more branches from one node -Shows that there isn’t enough evidence to determine sister taxa yet
clade/monophyletic group
Comprised of a common ancestor species and all descendants
paraphyletic
Consists of some but not all of the descendants of single ancestor
polyphyletic
Consists of some but not all of the descendants of 2 or more species
cladistics
classification based on historical sequences organisms have diverged from common ancestors
homology
trait found in 2 or more species due to common ancestry
Analogous/homoplasious trait
trait shared by 2 or more species without common descent from independent evolution
convergent evolution
-when species that are only distantly related independently evolve similar characteristics over time due to elements in their environments -Does not make them more closely related -Provides misleading info about phylogeny
derived character state
evolves in a population at a point in time
Ancestral character state
The trait originally present in the ancestor of a given group; may be retained or changed in the descendants of that ancestor.
Synapomorphy
-a shared derived trait -Provides accurate info about ancestry
Symplesiomorphy
-shared ancestral character states -Can sometimes provide misleading info about phylogeny
the principle of parcimony
-The simplest explanation, requiring the fewest undocumented assumptions, should be preferred over more complicated hypotheses that require more assumptions (for which evidence is lacking)
fewest
the principle of parcimony states that the best estimate of the true phylogeny is the one that requires us to postulate the ______ evolutionary changes.
distance methods
Species with less genetic differences are predicted to be more closely related
homology, equal evolutionary rates
The distance method poses challenges because it assumes _____ and ______
hypotheses
Phylogenetic trees based on data sets are ________
computer simulation, experimental populations of real organisms
-Independent data must be collected to reject or fail to reject these hypotheses -Phylogenetic-estimating methods can be tested using __________ or _____________
characters
homoplasy
evolutionary history
synapomorphies
Difficulties in phylogenetic Analysis -Scoring _______ can be difficult -_________ is very common -Evolution can erase traces of _________ -Rapid evolution provides few opportunities for the evolution of distinctive ____________
neo-lamarckism
Return to ideas of acquired characteristics being passed on with elements of natural selection added
Orthogenesis
theory that there are fixed goals for evolution
mutationism
Change in populations occurs in big leaps