social psych final exam

psych of false confess

voluntary - no ext pressure

coerced/compliant - person knows n Guilt but confesses to recieve promised reward/adverse penalty

coereced internalized - innocent sus induced to believe they’re guilty

automatic cognition

thinking outside your ‘conscious awareness’

shaped by immediate environment

* automatic, quick, effortless, emotion-driven, governed by habit, difficult to control, involuntary

controlled cognition

thinking within ‘conscious awareness’ - explicit

sometimes has to justify automatic cognition

* deliberate, slow, effortful, voluntary, easier to control

unconscious behavioral guidance system

environmental/contextual features → evaluations of others and objects + motivational states + perceptual system → behavioral responses

motivated cognition

people motivated to arrive at a particular conclusion often attempt to seek out information that supports their own beliefs, often to be able to provide reasonable justification

cultural cognition theory

tendency of individuals to form beliefs about society that reflect and reinforce their cultural worldview or groups they belong to

* culture - political orientation, race/ethnicity, nationality etc

categories of trauma-informed caregiving

* scapegoating
* parentification
* emotional unavailable
* enmeshment
* competition

contingencies of self worth

1. people have specific domains in which they evaluate their self worth


1. appearance, approval of others, academic achivement
2. relative to baseline, good and bad events in domains of CSW shape daily fluctuations in how a person feels
3. CSW are motivating: people want to prove that they are a success (and not a failure) in domains of contingent self-worth

categories of trauma-informed caregiving - parentification

child not only becomes their own parent, but parent to the parents

categories of trauma-informed caregiving - enmeshment

cannot separate from child; limit independence

categories of trauma-informed caregiving - competition

jealous or threatened by children’s success, competence, or beauty

fixed mindset (implicit theory of the nature of human attributes -- entity theorists)

attributes are fixed, concrete, internal entities

* more likely to focus on dispositional attributions; more rigid in judgements of self and others

growth mindset (implicit theory of the nature of human attributes -- incremental theorists)

human attributes are dynamic qualities that can be change or developed

* more likely to focus on situational attributions; less rigid in judgements of self and others

psych of class and SES: middle/upper class indivs are more likely to think in ___ ways

individualistic

psych of class and SES: working class indivs are more likely to think in ___ ways

interdependent

self-affirmation theory

the overall goal of the self-system is to protect an image of self-integrity and adequacy

* people wanna feel on the whole that they are a good person

social comparison theory

the process through which people come to know themselves by observing

downward social comparison

comparing to those that are less well off

upward social comparison

comparing to those who are better off

naive realism

the belief that our persepctive of the way things are is the way the world truly is (we are without bias/error)

* we are more objective than others, less affected by biases
* our POV is exactly right

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cognitive dissonance

aversive mental state of discomfort people want to alleviate resulting from conflicting attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors

* I am a good person (B), I cheated on a bf (Beh)

only occurs when the inconsistency is made noticeable -- situational motivator

moral hypocrisy

we often apply strict moral standards on other people, but do not live up to those same standards

cognitive-affective personality system (CAPS) (study)

1. behavior is best explained by if-then behavior profiles


1. the person does X in A situations, but Y in B situations
2. demands of situation explain behavioral consistency across time

descriptive social norms

the perception of where the group is (what most others are doing)

prescriptive social norms (injunctive)

perception of what the desirable attitude or behaviors of the group are (what most others approve or disapprove of)

normative influence and when does it happen

to be liked and accepted by other people

* factors. that increase this type of influence
* . often occurs when situation is not ambiguous

informational influence

to solve uncertainty and get information about what is the right thing to do

* factors that increase this type of influence
* crisis (need to act immediately w little info)
* when others are experts
* when being accurate is important

group status and integration preferences (study) B&W students on HBCU vs Predom WI

1. when group was majority, they had assimilationist preference for minority group


1. we are all the same -- no need to recognize unique identities
2. when a grou pwas minority, they had a pluralistic/multicultural preference


1. we’re all different -- highlight unique identities

five steps to inhumanity via identity (study)

1. make a cohesive in-group
2. exclusion - place targets outside the in-group
3. threat - other groups are a danger to us
4. virtue - represent the in-group as uniquely good
5. celebration - celebrate inhumanity as a defense of virtue


1. acronym -- METVCO

the social cure (study)

1. identity is central to mental and physical health


1. social support and mental health
2. identities can be used as a psychological resource


1. experiences are enhanced in group-settings
2. provide common direction, meaning and purpose

fundamental attribution error

the tendency to overestimate dispositional influences, underestimate situational influences for others’ behavior

shifting context and self categorization (study) take home

context shifts how we define ourselves (self-categorization) and (as a result) ‘who’ constitutes the ‘we’ in different situations

* your identity is not static, but dynamic and responsive to context

entrepreneurs of identity

seek to define the meaning of identity, who belongs (and doesn’t) and what the group wants (and does not want) to achieve

* identity definition often shapes how motives

identity based-motivation (study)

1. people engage in behaviors based on perceptions of what ‘we’ do
2. shifts in understanding of identity-definition can be associated with both ‘good’ and ‘bad’ behaviors


1. most groups have exemplars of both good and bad behaviors (if you think in diverse ways)

independent or individualistic cultures

more likely to place importance on distinguishing self vs others (compared to in vs out group) and strive for independencies

interdependent/collectivist cultures

more likely to place importance on distinguishing in-group vs out-groups (compared to self vs others) and strive for interconnectedness to meet needs of the in-group

in-group favoritism

the psychological tendency to have positive predispositions, favor, and preference one’s in-group over out-groups

* “the way i see the world is more valuable and is the best”

common in-group identity model

to the extent that members of different groups conceive of themselves as wholly or partially a part of an inclusive group, relations will be approved

IDEOLGICAL CONFLICT HYPOTHESIS (study)

both liberals and conservatives show an intolerance of those whose values and beliefs are inconsistent with their own

* ideas, values, policies that conflict w worldview are worldview conflicting
* demonstrate explicit prejudice toward the other side
* findings are more pronounced for those w higher identification

social dominance orientation (SDO)

an enduring generalized preference for hierarchy and inequality

* preference for gender, race or class heirarchy
* postively correlated with racism, sexism, dehumanization
* attached to low status groups??? (ISIS??)
* distinct emotional profiles as well as preference for heirarchy
* High SDO show less empathy and report more PLEASURE from suffering of others

hierarchy-enhancing legitimizing myths

factors that provide moral or intellectual justification for group based inequality

inequality maintained via use of powerful groups as the norm (intergroup level) -- using powerful or advantaged groups as the norm

powerful or advantaged groups are often viewed as the standard for what is “appropriate” behavior

* this occurs as a mental schema (sometimes) for BOTH members of the advantaged and disadvantaged groups

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decision-making under socio-economic threat (study)

relative to those who have more wealth, those with less wealth exhibit

* less control over life outcomes
* a psychological shift to short-term goals, over long-term goals
* cognitive resources become focused on tasks that address immediate needs

stereotype threat

for members of a stereotyped group highly invested in the domain, the threat of being judged and treated stereotypically or possibly fulfilling the stereotype leads them to preform worse in the domain

* only applies to those highly motivated to do well in the domain

factors that explain bias

* identity consolidation - defining ‘us’ by not being ‘them’
* dealing with personal grievance(s)
* provides existential certainty (eg worldview threat)
* enhances personal or group self-image

aversive racism (for low prejudiced white ppl)

aversive racists have a conflict between FEELINGS AND BELIEFS ASSOCIATED WITH EGALITARIAN VALUES and NEGATIVE FEELINGS ABOUT BLACK PPL, which are often unacknowledged

theory of aversive racism (for low prejudiced white ppl) expected behaviors

* when norms are clear, aversive racists act on the egalitarian beliefs (unbiased)
* when norms for appropriate behavior are UNCLEAR, they act based on discomfort (biased)

self-objectification

objectification of women’s bodies causes women to adopt in outsider’s view of themselves, as objects or sights to be appreciated by others

subordinate male target hypothesis

discrimination experienced by men of subordinate groups -- esp from men of the dominant group -- is greater than that experienced by women of the same subordinate groups in certain contexts

* ex housing discrimination, genocide, criminal justice system

shifting standards model (study)

* stereotypes implicitly or explicitly operate as standards by which people are judged
* standards are SUBJECTIVE and rooted in expectations
* the meaning of attributes differ as a fucntion of membership in stereotypes vs non groups
* what it means to be ‘warm’ is diff for men vs women

self fulfilling prophecy

an originally false social belief of another person (eg expectation or stereotype) that leads the other person to fulfill the originally false belief

3 steps of self fulfilling prophecy

1. perceiver has expectation (eg stereotype/schema)
2. perceiver behaves towards target in a way that is consistent w/ expectation
3. target behaves towards perceiver in a way that is consistent w/ perceiver’s behavior (expectation is confirmed!)

an affordance-management model (study)

perceivers characterize people/groups in terms of the threats or opportunities they pose for desired outcomes

* expression of bias is rooted in what bias can do for you vis-a-vie opportunity and threat

looking deathworthy - white victim

STEREOTYPICALLY black defendants receive death penalty more than less

looking deathworthy study - black victims

no sig diff in likelihood of getting the death penalty

fair process effect

receiving information that suggests fair \n process/procedures first, biases people in favor of unequal outcomes

a contingency theory of justice

individual justice reasoning within situation is contingent on ECONOMICS SOCIAL AND MORALITY

A socio-ecological framework of criminal justice \n judgments

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1\. Social stratification of shapes prior beliefs & justice \n concerns (stratification of mind): Race, class, political \n orientation, media consumption, distinct neighborhood based experiences, and negative/positive contact with the criminal justice system (e.g., police officers) inform prior beliefs and justice concerns \n - E.g., Racial/ethnic differences in experiences with police, trust, perceptions of whether police “help the community” vs. “hurt the community” \n 2. Prior beliefs & justice concerns (in turn) shape criminal \n justice decisions in a subjective way: Distinct prior beliefs and justice concerns are associated with systemic patterns of difference in decisions

procedural justice

perceieved fainress of procuderees, processes or methods for determining allocation of resourcesdist

distributive justice

perceived fairness of outcomes or resources received

a recursive change in persons and situations framework (study)

change in the situation that inspires new meanings AND OR change in the lens through which people make sense of themselves or situations

* initial self-defeating cycle to self-enhancing cycle

elaboration likelihood model - the central route (controlled cognition)

person carefully thinks about the arguments in the persuasive message

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elaboration likelihood model - the peripheral route (automatic cognition)

person does not actively or deliberately think about the arguments in the persuasive message

framing effects

people respond very differently to the exact same problem when framed in different ways

self-congruity theory of marketing

1. the extent to which an individual perceives a product or brand as consistent with how they perceive their actual or idealized self shapes purchasing behavior

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2. consumers are more likely to pay attention to and purchase products from brands that reflect their actual or idealized self-concept

cialdini’s six factors influencing persuasion - social validation

peeople decide what’s appropriate for them to do in a situation by examining what others are doing there

cialdini’s six factors influencing persuasion - reciprocity

people feel obliged to give back to others who have give to them

cialdini’s six factors influencing persuasion - consistency

once we make a choice/take a stand, we feel pressure to behave consistently with the commitment

cialdini’s six factors influencing persuasion - liking

we prefer to say ‘yes’ to those we know and like (or who like us)

cialdini’s six factors influencing persuasion - authority

people rely on those with superior knowledge or perspective for guidance on how to respond

cialdini’s six factors influencing persuasion - scarcity

items and opportunities become more desirable as they become less available

intergroup contact (study) theory

positive contact between members of different groups can effectively reduce intergroup prejudice

three typical predictors of participation in collective action (study) - anger

greater anger leads to greater likelihood of collective action

three typical predictors of participation in collective action (study) - efficacy

perception that action has the ability to change social inequities

* greater efficacy leads to greater likelihood of participating

three typical predictors of participation in collective action (study) - shared social identity

a shared meaningful identity with a common goal

spiral of silence (study)

people’s perception of public opinion influences their willingness to express their own opinions, which (in turn) affects others willingness to express opinions

elaborated social identity model four steps (study)

* Protest starts with ideologically heterogeneous crowd (mostly moderates)
* Crowd members perceived and treated as homogenously dangerous by authorities and police (i.e., one violent group)
* Moderate crowd members become more radicalized
* Protesters unite around a shared oppositional identity to authorities & police

media framing and response to protest study result 1

framing minority protest as a “riot” or “confrontation with police” associated with decreased identification with protestors, lower support for protestors, and decreased acceptance of any criticism of law enforcement---among majority group members

media framing and response to protest result 2

framing minority protest in a framework of legitimate debate (i.e., identifying protestor grievances and goals) associated with increases in identification with protestors, higher support for protestors, and increased criticism of law enforcement---among majority group members

attachment avoidance

the tendency to feel discomfort in an intimate relationship with attachment figures

practical implications of attachment avoidance

… is the extent to which a person has an excessive need for self-reliance (avoidance patterns)

attachment anxiety

reflects fear of abandonment coupled with the absence of emotional support from attachment figures

practical implications of attachment anxiety

… the extent to which a person worries and ruminates about being abandoned

dismissive avoidant attachment style

have a sense of their own self-worth, but don’t trust other people

* orientation: avoid intimacy or relying on others (often do not have many close relationships)

attachment styles shape behavioral patterns (study) result 1 - preoccupied attachment anxiety is associated with

pre-occupied/attachment anxiety is associated with hyper-activating strategies

attachment styles within daily interactions and memory (study) anxious (preoccupied) attachment findings

report greater intimacy within interactions, disclose more, and have higher emotional intensity when remembering past relationship events - compared to other attachment styles

attachment styles within daily interactions and memory (study) dismissive (avoidant) style findings

report greater negative emotions in daily interactions and remember more negative events from past relationships - compared to other attachment styles

secure attachment style

parents seen as safe, available, and responsive caregivers and easily relate to them

anxious/ambivalent attachment style

overly dependent on the parents and continually seek more affection from them than they can give

avoidant attachment style

unable to relate to parents at all, becoming distant, fearful, and cold

disorganized attachment style

blend of the other two insecure styles

secure attachment style

believe that they are worthy of love and that other people are trustworthy and responsive

* are comfortable with intimacy but are also secure enough to be on their own

anxious attachment style (pre occupied)

believe they aren’t worthy of love, but generally feel others are supportive and accepting

* orientation - seek validation and self-acceptance through their relationships with others (can include narcissistic tendencies)

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attachment styles shape behavioral patterns (study) result 2 - dismissive or avoidant/attachment avoidance is associated with

dismissive or avoidant/attachment avoidance is associated with de activating strategies

four ‘horsemen of the apocalypse’

criticism, contempt, defensiveness, stonewalling

criticism

attacking ur partner’s personality/character

* you always… you never… you’re the type to….

defensiveness

seeing self as the victim, warding off a perceived attack

* making excuses, cross-complaining, yes-butting

stonewalling

withdrawing from the relationship to avoid conflict

* silence; changing the subject; disconnection; distance

de-escalation techniques during conflict

1. listen-- rather than react (emotionally)
2. take a time-out (interrupt the escalation)
3. acknowledge your part in conflict
4. be respectful
5. decide on a common goal

core tenets of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT)

1. emotions are difficult to change
2. shift the thoughts that produce emotions
3. identify how situations, thoughts, and behaviors influence emotions
4. improve feelings by changing counterproductive thoughts and behaviors