Psychology Midterm 1

Psychology

scientific study of mental activity and behavior, which depends on processing in the brain

Ontology

the philosophical study of being

• your view of reality and to what extent it exists ‘out there’ to be captured through research

• Concerned with what is true and real

Psychoanalytic Theory

explains human personality as a series of stages that is formed through inner conflicts

Behaviorism

theory of learning that states all behaviors are learned through conditioned interaction with the environment

Empiricism

conducting psychological research using an objective, evidence-based approach

Science of Learning

research in psychology and other fields that suggests how you can improve your study skills, learning, and academic performance

Critical Thinking

systematically evaluate information to reach conclusions based on the evidence that is presented

Wilhelm Wundt

established the first experimental psychology labratory

Biological

how does your activity in your brain and body give rise to your thoughts, feelings, and actions?

Cognitive

how do your mental activities affect your thoughts, feelings, and actions?

Development

how do you change your life in terms of your thoughts, feelings, and actions?

social and personality

how do social factors and your personal characteristics impact your thoughts, feelings, and actions?

mental and phsyical

what effects your mental and physical health, and how can you develop healthy behaviors?

Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

Piaget proposed four major stages of cognitive development, and called them (1) sensorimotor intelligence, (2) preoperational thinking, (3) concrete operational thinking, and (4) formal operational thinking

Diversity

characteristics that make us seem different from one another in specific situations

Culture

the beliefs, values, rules, and customs within a group who share a common language and environment (diff. cultures lead to diff. answers in psychological testing)

Ethics

accepted standards of right and wrong

Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development

Stages arise as individuals grow and face new decisions and turning points during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood. Each stage is defined by two opposing psychological tendencies – one positive/syntactic and negative/dystonic

Institutional Review Boards (IRBs)

reviews all proposed research to ensure that it meets four ethical standards: privacy, informed consent, confidentiality, and protection from harm

Scientific Method

systematic, empirical approach that psychologists use to achieve these 3 goals: Formulate a theory, develop a testable hypothesis, and test with a research method

Theory

explanation of how some mental process or behavior occurs

Hypothesis

specific, testable prediction about what should be observed if a theory is correct

Descriptive Reasearch Methods

describe what is occurring (ex. case studies, observational study, and self-reports)

Correlational Research Methods

test the relationship between variables

Experimental Research Methods

investigate cause of outcome

Case Studies

allow in-depth investigation of one or few people

Observation Study

watch what participants do in a natural environment

Self-Reports

gather information directly from participants

Replication

verify results of a study by doing it again

Descripitive Methods

research methods that provide a systematic and objective snapshot of what is occurring at a certain point in time

Hawthorne Effect

alteration of behavior by the subjects of a study due to their awareness of being observed

Correlational Methods

examine a naturally occurring relationship between 2 factors without alteration

Experimental Methods

determine whether causality exists between variables or to explain why a phenomenon occurs

Independent Variable

manipulated and under the experimenter’s control

Dependent Variable

the effect of the independent variable on a second variable

Operational Definitions

objective and systematic defintions of a word

Control Group

baseline with no change

Experimental Group

manipulated

Random Sample

each member of a population has an equal chance of being chosen to participate in research— random assignment to place participants in control v. experimental group

What is Psychology?

Mind is made up of all mental activity that lets us experience the world; behavior is all the actions resulting from sensing and interpreting information

What makes something “Mental”?

mental, behavioral, and brain are all the same, it just depends on how you look at it

• psychology has taken advantage of splitting things into mental v. nonmental

  • the behavior of acting emotional is emotion (nonmental)

What about clinical psychology? How does it fit?

science + research = therapy

• study human behavior in therapy

Can we have a science of human activity? Should we?

• prediction through science

• ability to influence and control

• if people are doing the science, how do we explain their scientific behavior?

  • PERENNIAL THEME- hall of mirrors problem

Hall of Mirrors Problem

A situation where it's difficult to distinguish between reality and perception due to multiple conflicting perspectives reflected back at you

What is Psychology? (Lecture)

• Empirical extension of philosophy

• A mostly secular group of predominantly white, European, 20th century, alleged experts in human functioning

• The behavior of people who call themselves psychologists

• Somewhere in between sociology and neuroscience

• A divide field of study (e.g., developmental, social, cognitive, clinical, etc.)

• A dying field of study? Will it all ultimately be about the brain?

What do Psychologists do?

• research (academic and otherwise)

• teaching

• therapy

• consultation

• assessment/testing

Nervous System

a network of billions of cells in your brain and body

• receives sensory input through sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell

• process info in the brain by paying attention to it, perceiving it, and remembering it

• responds to info by acting on it

Central Nervous System (CNS)

nerve cells in the brain and spinal cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

the nerve cells outside of the brain and spinal cord

Neurons

small units that make up divisions of the nervous system

Dendrites

Branch-like extensions of a neuron that receive signals from other neurons. They play a crucial role in transmitting information to the cell body for further processing.

Cell Body

where info received from thousands of neurons is collected and interpreted (combined)—responsible for processing and integrating information received from dendrites and sending signals down the axon.

Axon

long, slender projection of a neuron that transmits electrical impulses away from the cell body to other neurons

Terminal Buttons

the end of the axon— responsible for releasing neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap.

Synapse

A junction between two neurons, where electrical or chemical signals are transmitted. It allows for communication and information transfer in the nervous system.

• the gap between terminal buttons sending neurons and dendrites receiving neurons

Transmission Phase

neural communication begins when there is enough stimulation in the presynaptic neuron to create an action potential

• the action potential travels down the axon to the terminal buttons and causes neurotransmitters to be released from the terminal buttons at the end of the axon

Reception Phase

the neurotransmitters cross the synapse and fit into receptors in the dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron

Integration Phase

each neurotransmitter has either excitatory or inhibitory effects on the postsynaptic neuron

• these effects are summed together in the cell body

• if there is enough activation, it will lead to another action potential

  • at that point the process begins again

Action Potential

the neural impulse that travels along the axon and then causes the release of neurotransmitters into the synapse

Myelin Sheath

the fatty layer that insulates the axon

• allows for faster movement of electrical impulses

Acetylcholine

Neurotransmitter: motor control over muscles; Attention, memory, learning, sleeping

Norepinephrine

Neurotransmitter: arousal and alertness

Serotonin

Neurotransmitter: emotional states and impules control; dreaming

Dopamine

Neurotransmitter: reward and motivation; motor control over voluntary movement

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

Neurotransmitter: inhibition of action potentials; anxiety reduction; intoxication (through alcohol)

Glutamate

Neurotransmitter: enhancement of action potentials; learning and memory

Endorphins

Neurotransmitter: pain reduction; reward

Hindbrain

• Medulla: breathing, heart rate, other survival mechanisms

• Pons: sleep, arousal, left-right body movement coordination

• Cerebellum: motor learning, coordination, balance

Midbrain

• Substantia Nigra: initiation of voluntary motor activity

Forebrain (Subcortical Structures)

• Thalamus: sensory information (except smell)

• Hypothalamus: regulation of body functions (sleep, temp, etc.) and motivation (hunger, thirst, sex, etc.)

• Hippocampus: formation of new memories

• Amygdala: association of emotions with experiences

Forebrain (Cortical Structures)

• Occipital Lobes: vision

• Parietal Lobes: touch, spatial information

• Temporal Lobes: hearing, memory

• Frontal Lobes: Planning movement, complex thought

Broca’s Area

a small portion of the left frontal region of the brain; this area is crucial for producing speech

Medulla

controls the basic functions of survival; heart rate, bretaing, swallowing, etc.

Pons

Sleep and arousal; coordinating movements between the left and right sides of the body

Cerebellum

essential for proper motor functions; motor learning and memory

Thalamus

the gateway to the brain for sight, sound, touch, and taste sensory info before that info reaches the cortex

Hypothalamus

regulates bodily functions; basic motivated behaviors

Hippocampus

formation of new memories and with spatial navigation

Amygdala

learning to associate things with emotional responses and in processing emotional information

Occipital Lobes

vision

Parietal Lobes

touch

Temporal Lobes

hold the primary auditory cortex (hearing)

Frontal Lobes

essential for complex thought, planning, and movement

Split Brain

a condition in which the corpus callosum is surgically severed and the two hemispheres of the brain do not receive information directly from each other

• epilepsy

Right Hemisphere

better with special relationships and controls left-side body movements

Left Hemisphere

better with language and controls right-side body movements

Left Hemisphere Occipital Lobe

processes right visual field information

Right Hemisphere Occipital Lobe

processes left visual field information

Somatic Nervous System

subdivision of the PNS; transmits sensory signals and motor signals back and forth between the CNS and the skin, muscles, and joints

Autonomic Nervous System

subdivision of the PNS; transmits sensory signals and motor signals back and forth between the CNS and the body’s glands and internal organs

Endocrine System

a communication network that influences many aspects of your body; influences mental activity and behavior

Hormones

the chemicals that are released into the bloodstream by endocrine glands

Natural Selection

the basis of evolution; those who inherit characteristics that help them adapt to their particular environments have an advantage over those who do not

Genes

units of hereditary that help determine an offspring’s characteristics

Monozygotic Twins

Identical

Dizygotic Twins

Fraternal

Plasticity

a property of the brain that causes it to change as a result of experience or injury

The Common View of Nature v. Nurture

• Nature = everything you are born with as a result of natural selection/evolution

• Nurture = those aspects of human psychology/behavior that are “natural”/inevitable

• Nurture is social/psychological while Nature is biological

  • the effects of nature and nurture can be separated through scientific studies (e.g., identical twins raised together versus those raised apart)

An Alternative (more correct) View of Nature v. Nurture

• Nurnature/Nanature

  • Nurture —> Nature —> Nurture —> Nature

• Nature is always nurtured (e.g., cells learn in environments)

• Nurture always requires nature (e.g., how we learn from our environment depends on our ‘nature’/biology)

• Distinction is bogus

Why does “Nature v. Nurture” Persist?

• The Blame/Compassion Game: we talk about aspects of human behavior we don’t like, by dividing them into

  • “Biological”- not our fault; inevitable

  • “Psychological”- our fault; a personal flaw or weakness

  • “Environmental”- a compromise— maybe we can do something about it