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Prejudice
An unjustifiable (and usually negative) attitude toward a group and its members, often involving stereotypes, negative feelings, and discriminatory predispositions.
Stereotype
A generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.
Discrimination
Unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members.
Implicit Prejudice
An unconscious, knee-jerk response operating below awareness, influencing behavior without conscious realization.
Studying Implicit Prejudice
Through methods such as testing unconscious group associations, considering unconscious patronization, and monitoring reflexive bodily responses.
Implicit Association Tests (IAT)
Reveal that people may unconsciously hold negative racial associations even if they deny prejudice.
Unconscious Patronization
Lower expectations, inflated praise, and insufficient criticism for minority achievements.
Other-Race Effect
The tendency to more easily recognize faces of one's own race and overestimate similarities within other races.
Mixed-Race Categorization
Based on their minority identity, reflecting unconscious biases.
Altruism
Unselfish concern for the welfare of others.
Helping Behavior Factors
Noticing an incident, interpreting it as an emergency, assuming responsibility, and being in a good mood, unhurried, or feeling guilty.
Bystander Effect
The tendency for bystanders to be less likely to help when others are present due to diffusion of responsibility.
Reciprocity Norm
The expectation that people will return favors, following a cost-benefit analysis.
Social-Responsibility Norm
The expectation that people should help those dependent on them.
Freud's Personality Theory Components
Id: Operates on the pleasure principle. Ego: Operates on the reality principle, balancing the id's desires with reality. Superego: Strives for perfection and acts as the moral conscience.
Repression
The unconscious blocking of anxiety-inducing thoughts or feelings, which may manifest in dreams or slips of the tongue.
Freud's Psychosexual Stages
1. Oral (0-18 months): Pleasure centers on the mouth. 2. Anal (18-36 months): Focuses on bowel/bladder control. 3. Phallic (3-6 years): Genital focus and coping with incestuous feelings. 4. Latency (6-puberty): Dormant sexual feelings. 5. Genital (puberty+): Maturation of sexual interests.
Reaction Formation
Switching unacceptable impulses into their opposites.
Projection
Disguising one's own threatening impulses by attributing them to others.
Denial
Refusing to believe or perceive painful realities.
Self-Actualization
Fulfilling one's potential and striving for self-transcendence, focusing on greater missions beyond social acceptance.
Growth-Promoting Environments
Require genuineness, acceptance, and empathy.
Trait Theorists Focus
Stable and enduring patterns of behavior described through traits rather than explained by external factors.
Big Five Personality Factors
Conscientiousness, Agreeableness, Neuroticism, Openness, and Extraversion (CANOE).
Assessing Traits
Using personality inventories like the MMPI, which objectively measure behavioral tendencies.