Unit 1 Human Anatomy

Basic Anatomy Terms, Cytology, and Histology

Anatomy

study of “normal” body structure

Pathology

study of abnormal body structure

Physiology

study of body function

Pathophysiology

study of abnormal body function

Gross anatomy

can be seen by the naked eye

ex. dissection, cadavers, autopsy, and exploratory surgery

Radiography

X-rays - used to look at bones

Computed tomography

CT - used to see soft tissues

Magnetic resonance imaging

MRI

Positron emission tomography

PET - used to look at the brain and detect cancer

Sonography

ultrasounds

Clinical procedures

1. Inspection

2. Palpation

3. Percussion

4. Auscultation

5. Reflex response

Palpation

used to feel pulse and lymph nodes

Percussion

tapping back or chest and looking for density changes

Auscultation

listening with a stethoscope

Reflex response

used to check for spinal nerve/cord damage

Levels of human structure

microscopic and macroscopic

Microscopic

cellular (cytology) and tissue (histology)

Macroscopic

Organ and organ system

Anatomical position

·      Person stands erect with feet flat on the floor

·      Arms at sides with forearms supinated

·      Palms, face, and eyes facing forward

Dorsal body cavity

includes the cranial cavity and vertebral canal (CNS)

Ventral body cavity

includes the thoracic cavity, abdominal cavity, and pelvic cavity (trunk)

Layers of serous membranes

Parietal, serous cavity, and visceral

Parietal

outer wall

Serous cavity

in between parietal and visceral and filled with fluid

Visceral

inner wall

Pericardium

serous membrane around the heart

Pleura

serous membrane surrounding the lungs

Peritoneum

serous membrane surrounding the abdominal organs

Axial

cephalic, cervical, trunk (thorax and abdominopelvic), and back (cervical, thoracic, lumbar, and sacral)

Appendicular

upper extremities and lower extremities

Upper extremities

axillary, brachium, antebrachium, carpus, pollex, digits

Lower extremities

inguinal, femoral, patellar/popliteal, crural, tarsus, hallux, digits

Superior/cranial

toward the top of the body

Inferior/caudal

toward the bottom of the body

Anterior

more toward the front of the body

Posterior

more toward the back of the body

Medial

more toward the midline of the body

Lateral

farther from the midline of the body

Proximal

more toward the joint/attachment point

Distal

farther away from the joint/attachment point

Ipsilateral

toward the same side

Contralateral

toward the opposite side

Sagittal plane

divides the body into right and left sides

• “getting on the saddle” - in line with the horse

Frontal (coronal) plane

divides the body into anterior and posterior sections

Transverse plane

divides the body into superior and inferior sections

Cells

most basic structural/functional unit of the body

Characteristics of Life

complex organization, metabolism, homeostasis, responsiveness and movement, growth and development, and reproduction

Squamous

thin, flat cells that line airways and the skin

Cuboidal

square-shaped cells found in the liver

Columnar

cells that are taller than wide found in the inner lining of the stomach and intestines

Plasma membrane

• unit membrane that encloses a cell and controls the traffic of molecules into and out of it

• made up of a lipid bilayer and contains transmembrane proteins, peripheral proteins, glycoproteins, glycolipids, and glycocalyx

Lipid bilayer

made up of phospholipids with hydrophobic fatty acid tails and hydrophilic heads

Transmembrane proteins

• spans both layers of phospholipids

• have different functions and roles

• receptor, enzyme, channel, gated channel, cell-identity marker, and cell-adhesion molecule

Receptor

binds to chemical messengers

Enzyme

breaks down a chemical messenger and terminates its effect

Channel

constantly open and allows solutes to pass into and out of the cell

Gated channel

opens and closes to allow solutes through only at certain times

Cell-identity marker

glycoprotein acting as a cell-identity marker distinguishing the body’s own cells from foreign cells

Cell-adhesion molecule (CAM)

binds one cell to another

Peripheral proteins

proteins on one side of the lipid bilayer

Glycoproteins

carbohydrate attached to a protein

Glycolipid

carbohydrate attached to a lipid

Glycocalyx

sugar coating of all cells

Intracellular face

side of the plasma membrane facing the cytoplasm

Extracellular face

side of the plasma membrane facing outward

Filtration

physical pressure forces fluid through a membrane

Simple diffusion

net movement of particles from high concentration to lower concentration

Osmosis

net diffusion of water molecules through a selectively permeable membrane

Facilitated diffusion

movement of a solute through a membrane and down the concentration gradient with the aid of a carrier protein

Active transport

carrier-mediated transport of a solute through a unit membrane up its concentration gradient

Endocytosis

vesicular processes that bring matter into a cell

Exocytosis

vesicular processes that release material from a cell

Microvilli

extensions of the plasma membrane that increase the surface area

Cilia

hairlike processes with sensory functions

Pseudopods

cytoplasm-filled extensions of the cell

Intracellular matrix (ICM)

• cytoplasm

• organelles + cytosol

Nucleus

• contains DNA

• contains chromatin and the nucleolus

Golgi body

modifies and packages synthesized proteins and synthesizes carbohydrates

Centriole

short cylindrical assembly of microtubules

Ribosomes

small granules of protein and RNA in the cytosol and mitochondria and on the surface of the rough ER and nuclear envelope

Rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum

synthesizes steroids, detoxifies alcohol and other drugs, and manufactures the membranes of the cell

Lysosome

membrane-bounded packets of enzymes

Peroxisome

• contain different enzymes than lysosomes

• use oxygen to oxidize organic molecules

Proteasome

protein-degrading organelles

Mitochondria

converts glucose into ATP

Cytoskeleton

• supports the cell, determines its shape, organizes its contents, and contributes to movement

• microtubules, microfilaments, and intermediate fibers

Inclusions

either accumulated cell products and granules of glycogen or internalized foreign matter

Hemidesmosome

attaches cell to basement membrane of ECM

Desmosome

attaches cell to cell and provides elasticity

Tight junction

• attaches cell to cell and prevent paracellular diffusion

• “ziplock”

Gap junction

attaches cell to cell and establishes a passageway

Cellular diversity

• shape/size

• function

• differentiation - development of a more specialized form and function; which genes are turned on

Histones

• proteins with DNA wrapped around them

• forms nucleosomes → chromosomes

G1

cell synthesizes proteins, grows, and carries out its predestined tasks for the body

S

cell makes duplicate copies of its nuclear DNA and centrioles

G2

cell finishes replicating its centrioles and synthesizes enzymes that control cell division

Mitosis (M)

• cell replicates its nucleus, divides its DNA, and forms two identical daughter cells

• Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

Transcription

• DNA → mRNA; takes place in the nucleus

• mRNA leaves the nucleus through nuclear pore to enter the cytoplasm (rER)

• strand is fed through a ribosome and read as a codon

• codons translate to amino acids → protein

Post translation

protein enters the golgi body for modification

Newly formed proteins are…

1. packaged into lysosomes

2. incorporated into the plasma membrane (ex. transmembrane, peripheral…)

3. exported by exocytosis