Psychology: Key Concepts from History, Neuroscience, and Cognitive Theories

Mind-Body Problem

The philosophical question of how the mind and body interact, considering dualism and materialism.

Dualism

(Descartes) The belief that the mind and body are separate substances; the body is material, the mind is immaterial.

Materialism

(Hobbes) The view that mental states are the result of brain/physical processes, with no separate 'soul'.

Empiricism

(Locke and Hobbes) The theory that knowledge comes through sensory experience, often summarized by the concept of 'tabula rasa' or blank slate.

Nativism

(Plato Descarte) The belief that some knowledge is innate, such as the capacity for language and math.

Empirical Science Characteristics

Key features of empirical science include systematic observation, skepticism, replication, and objectivity.

Freud & Psychoanalytic Theory

The theory that behavior is driven by unconscious conflicts and desires, emphasizing childhood experiences and repression.

Iceberg metaphor

Freud's metaphor illustrating the conscious mind (above water), preconscious (accessible memories), and unconscious (hidden desires, fears, urges).

Pavlov & Watson: Behaviorism

The school of thought that focuses on observable behavior rather than introspection.

Classical conditioning

A learning process that creates associations between neutral stimuli and reflexive responses, exemplified by Pavlov's dog salivation experiment.

B.F. Skinner & Operant Conditioning

A learning theory that emphasizes reinforcement and punishment in shaping behavior.

Operant conditioning chamber

Also known as the 'Skinner box', it is a device used to study animal behavior through reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement

A process that increases behavior by adding a stimulus, such as giving food when a rat presses a lever.

Negative reinforcement

A process that increases behavior by removing a stimulus, such as stopping an unpleasant noise when a desired action is taken.

Chomsky's Critique

The argument that language cannot be fully explained by reinforcement or punishment, suggesting an innate grammar structure.

Cognitive Revolution

A shift in psychology focusing on the study of mental processes such as perception, memory, and problem-solving.

Humanistic Psychology

An approach emphasizing personal growth, free will, and meaning, in response to determinism.

Client-centered therapy

A therapeutic approach developed by Carl Rogers that emphasizes unconditional positive regard.

Hierarchy of needs

A motivational theory proposed by Abraham Maslow, depicting a pyramid of human needs with self-actualization at the top.

Cognitive neuroscience

The field that combines cognitive psychology with brain imaging to study brain activity related to cognition.

Positive Psychology

A branch of psychology that focuses on human strengths and well-being, associated with Martin Seligman.

Biopsychosocial Approach

A model explaining behavior as influenced by biological, psychological, and social-cultural factors.

Neuron Anatomy

The structure of a neuron, including dendrites (receive messages), cell body (processes info), axon (sends messages), and myelin sheath (speeds up signal transmission).

Myelin sheath

fatty covering that speeds up signal transmission.

Terminal buttons

release neurotransmitters into synapse.

Resting potential

neuron at -70 mV, polarized (more negative inside).

Action potential

all-or-nothing electrical impulse triggered when threshold is reached.

Propagation

AP moves down axon; myelin speeds it via saltatory conduction (jumps between nodes of Ranvier).

Synaptic transmission

neurotransmitters released into synapse, bind to receptors on next neuron.

Reuptake/enzymatic breakdown

clears neurotransmitters.

Acetylcholine (ACh)

muscle movement, learning, memory.

Dopamine

reward, motivation, movement (Parkinson's = too little, schizophrenia = too much).

Serotonin

mood, sleep, hunger (SSRIs block serotonin reuptake → more serotonin available).

Norepinephrine

alertness, arousal.

GABA

main inhibitory NT.

Glutamate

main excitatory NT.

Endorphins

natural opiates; reduce pain.

Agonists

mimic NT (e.g., heroin mimics endorphins).

Antagonists

block NT (e.g., naloxone blocks opioid receptors).

Central nervous system (CNS)

brain & spinal cord.

Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

everything else.

Somatic

voluntary movement (skeletal muscles).

Autonomic

involuntary.

Sympathetic

fight-or-flight.

Parasympathetic

rest-and-digest.

Pituitary gland

"master gland," controls other glands.

Thyroid

regulates metabolism.

Adrenal glands

release adrenaline/cortisol (stress response).

Feedback system

hypothalamus ↔ pituitary ↔ other glands regulates hormone levels.

fMRI (functional MRI)

measures blood-oxygen levels (BOLD response); good spatial resolution (where activity happens).

Structural MRI

shows brain anatomy.

EEG

electrodes measure electrical activity; great temporal resolution (when activity happens).

DTI (diffusion tensor imaging)

shows white-matter tracts (connectivity).

PET (positron emission tomography)

traces glucose use.

MEG (magnetoencephalography)

measures magnetic fields of brain activity.

Anterior

front.

Posterior

back.

Dorsal

top (think "dorsal fin").

Ventral

bottom.

Medial

toward middle.

Lateral

toward sides.

Brainstem

survival functions (breathing, heartbeat).

Cerebellum

balance, coordination, procedural memory.

Thalamus

sensory relay station.

Reticular formation

alertness, arousal.

Amygdala

fear, aggression.

Hippocampus

memory formation.

Hypothalamus

hunger, thirst, body temp, sex drive; controls pituitary.

Cerebral Cortex

Two hemispheres: left (language, logic) vs right (spatial, creativity).

Corpus callosum

thick band connecting hemispheres; cut in epilepsy patients → "split-brain" effects.

Frontal lobe

decision-making, motor cortex, planning.

Parietal lobe

somatosensory cortex (touch).

Occipital lobe

vision.

Temporal lobe

hearing, memory.

Association areas

integrate info for higher cognition.

Neuroplasticity

brain can reorganize after damage.