AP Exam Review Beast Packet

Structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind

Functionalism

a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.

Structuralism

an early school of psychology that used introspection to explore the elemental structure of the human mind

Functionalism

a school of psychology that focused on how mental and behavioral processes function - how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish.

Psychoanalytic

perspective developed by Freud, which assumes that psychological problems are the result of anxiety resulting from unresolved conflicts and forces of which a person might be unaware. Study of unconscious

Behavioral

the perspective of psychological science that deals with how we learn observable responses

Humanistic

How we meet our needs for love and acceptance and achieve self-fulfillment

Cognitive

how we encode, process, store, and retrieve information

Evolutionary

how the natural selection of traits promotes the perpetuation of one's genes

Biological

how the body and brain enable emotions, memories, and sensory experiences; how genes combine with environment to influence individual differences

Sociocultural

Social interaction and the cultural determinants of behavior and mental processes

Biopsychosocial

an integrated approach that incorporates biological, psychological, and social-cultural levels of analysis

Mary Calkins

first female president of the APA (1905); a student of William James; denied the PhD she earned from Harvard because of her sex (later, posthumously, it was granted to her)

Charles Darwin

English natural scientist who formulated a theory of evolution by natural selection (1809-1882)

Dorothea Dix

A reformer and pioneer in the movement to treat the insane as mentally ill, beginning in the 1820's, she was responsible for improving conditions in jails, poorhouses and insane asylums throughout the U.S. and Canada. She succeeded in persuading many states to assume responsibility for the care of the mentally ill. She served as the Superintendant of Nurses for the Union Army during the Civil War.

Stanley Hall

American psychologist who established first research lab and American Psychological Association.1st president of APA.

William James

1842-1910; Field: functionalism; Contributions: studied how humans use perception to function in our environment; Studies: Pragmatism, The Meaning of Truth

Wilhelm Wundt

german physiologist who founded psychology as a formal science; opened first psychology research laboratory in 1879

Margaret Floy Washburn

First female to be awarded a PhD in psychology; 2nd president of the APA (1921)

Experiment

Establishes cause and effect by controlling variables.

Independent Variable

The experimental factor that is manipulated; the variable whose effect is being studied.

Dependent Variable

The outcome factor; the variable that may change in response to manipulations of the independent variable.

Operational Definition

a statement of the procedures (operations) used to define research variables. Very clear! For example, human intelligence may be defined as what an intelligence test measures.

Confounds

Errors or flaws in a study.

Random Assignment

assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between those assigned to the different groups

Random Sample

a sample that fairly represents a population because each member has an equal chance of inclusion

Validity

The ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure

Reliability

Consistency of results.

Naturalistic Observation

Observing behavior in natural settings.

Correlation

Identifying relationships between variables.

Case Study

Detailed study of one individual.

Descriptive Statistics

Measures of central tendency.

Inferential Statistics

Establishes significance.

Neuron

Basic cell of the nervous system.

Action Potential

Electrical charge down the axon.

Hindbrain

(Cerebellum, Medulla, Pons)

Midbrain

(Reticular Formation)

Forebrain

(Limbic System, Thalamus, Cerebral Cortex)

Brain Plasticity

Brain's ability to heal itself.

Nature

refers to how genetics influence an individual's personality

Nurture

refers to how their environment (including relationships and experiences) impacts their development.

Endocrine System

Sends hormones throughout the body.

EEG (Electroencephalogram)

Measures brain activity by recording electrical patterns on the scalp. Provides information about brain waves and overall brain function. Not very specific in pinpointing brain structures.

X-ray

Traditional imaging technique using electromagnetic radiation. Not commonly used for brain imaging due to limited detail. Useful for detecting fractures or bone abnormalities.

CT

Uses X-rays to produce detailed cross-sectional images of the brain.

PET (Positron Emission Tomography)

Involves injecting a radioactive tracer into the bloodstream. Tracer highlights areas of high metabolic activity in the brain. Useful for studying brain function and activity, especially in relation to specific tasks or conditions.

fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging):

Measures changes in blood flow and oxygenation levels in the brain. Provides detailed images of brain activity in real-time. Commonly used in cognitive neuroscience to study brain function during tasks or behaviors.

quasi-experiment

is a research design that resembles an experimental study but lacks full control over variables, typically due to ethical or practical reasons.

Limited Control

The researcher cannot fully manipulate the independent variable or assign participants randomly to conditions.

Natural Settings

Quasi-experiments often occur in real-world settings, making them more reflective of natural behavior.

Pre-existing Groups

Participants are often assigned to groups based on pre-existing characteristics or conditions.

Causal Inferences

While quasi-experiments can suggest causal relationships, they cannot establish causation as confidently as true experiments.

Negative Correlation

occurs when one variable increases while the other decreases, or vice versa. Example: As the temperature decreases, the demand for ice cream decreases. Or, as stress levels increase, sleep quality tends to decrease. On a scatter plot, data points tend to cluster in a pattern that slopes downwards from left to right. The stronger the negative correlation, the closer the data points cluster around a straight line.

Positive Correlation

exists when both variables increase or decrease together. Example: As the amount of studying increases, exam scores also increase. Or, as the number of hours spent exercising increases, fitness levels also increase. On a scatter plot, data points tend to cluster in a pattern that slopes upwards from left to right. The stronger the positive correlation, the closer the data points cluster around a straight line.

p-value

is the probability of obtaining results as extreme as, or more extreme than, the observed results, assuming that the null hypothesis is true.it is is low (typically below a predetermined significance level, often 0.05), it suggests that the observed results are unlikely to have occurred by chance if the null hypothesis is true. In this case, the results are considered statistically significant, and the null hypothesis may be rejected.If it is high (above the significance level), it indicates that the observed results are likely to have occurred by chance, even if the null hypothesis is true. In this case, the results are not considered statistically significant, and the null hypothesis is not rejected.

Example: Suppose a researcher conducts a study to test whether a new drug reduces blood pressure. The null hypothesis (H0) states that the drug has no effect on blood pressure. After analyzing the data, the researcher calculates a p-value of 0.03. Since the term is below the significance level of 0.05, the results are considered statistically significant. The researcher may conclude that there is evidence to reject the null hypothesis and support the alternative hypothesis (Ha) that the drug does indeed reduce blood pressure.

null hypothesis

A prediction that there is no difference between groups or conditions, or a statement or an idea that can be falsified, or proved wrong.

mean

the arithmetic average of a distribution, obtained by adding the scores and then dividing by the number of scores

mode

the most frequently occurring score(s) in a distribution

Median

the middle score in a distribution; half the scores are above it and half are below it

standard deviation

a measure of variability that describes an average distance of every score from the mean

Percentages of a bell curve

68% = 1 SD
95% = 2 SD
99.7% = 3 SD

Stimulants

Drugs (such as caffeine, nicotine, and the more powerful amphetamines, cocaine, and Ecstasy) that excite neural activity and speed up body functions.

Depressants

drugs (such as alcohol, barbiturates, and opiates) that reduce neural activity and slow body functions

Hallucinogens

psychedelic ("mind-manifesting") drugs, such as LSD, that distort perceptions and evoke sensory images in the absence of sensory input

reticular formation

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

GABA (gamma-aminobutyric acid)

A major inhibitory neurotransmitter. Undersupply linked to seizures, tremors, and insomnia.

Norepinephrine

A neurotransmitter involved in arousal, as well as in learning and mood regulation

Glutamate

A major excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in memory

Dopamine

A neurotransmitter associated with movement, attention and learning and the brain's pleasure and reward system.

Adrenaline

a hormone secreted by the adrenal glands, especially in conditions of stress, increasing rates of blood circulation, breathing, and carbohydrate metabolism and preparing muscles for exertion.

Serotonin

Affects mood, hunger, sleep and arousal. Undersupply linked to depression.

Oxytocin

a hormone released by the pituitary gland that causes increased contraction of the uterus during labor and stimulates the ejection of milk into the ducts of the breasts.

Acetylcholine

A neurotransmitter that enables learning and memory and also triggers muscle contraction

reticular formation

a nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal

neural firing process

The process of normal neuronal firing takes place as a communication between neurons through electrical impulses and neurotransmitters.

depth perception

the ability to see objects in three dimensions although the images that strike the retina are two-dimensional; allows us to judge distance

linear perspective

A monocular cue for perceiving depth; the more parallel lines converge, the greater their perceived distance.

Interposition

monocular visual cue in which two objects are in the same line of vision and one patially conceals the other, indicating that the first object concealed is further away

motion parallax

a depth cue in which the relative movement of elements in a scene gives depth information when the observer moves relative to the scene

accommodation

the process by which the eye's lens changes shape to focus near or far objects on the retina

retinal disparity

a binocular cue for perceiving depth by comparing images from the retinas in the two eyes, the brain computes distance—the greater the disparity (difference) between the two images, the closer the object.

closure principle

the Gestalt principle that describes a person's tendency to supply missing information in order to perceive a holistic image

figure-ground perception

the perception of figures against a background

Similarity Principle (Gestalt)

the tendency to perceive things that look similar to each other as being part of the same group

Proximity Principle (Gestalt)

Gestalt principle of perception that states that parts of a visual stimulus that are close together are perceived as belonging together

Rods

retinal receptors that detect black, white, and gray; necessary for peripheral and twilight vision, when cones don't respond

Cones

retinal receptor cells that are concentrated near the center of the retina and that function in daylight or in well-lit conditions. The cones detect fine detail and give rise to color sensations.

size illusions

Most size illusions are caused by causing people to mistake the distance to an object so that it appears larger or smaller than it really is.

If an object appears closer than it really is, it will appear smaller than it really is.

If an object appears further away than it really is, it will appear larger than it really is

Other senses

olfaction (sense of smell), gustation (sense of taste; consists of 5 major sensations- sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and umami), tactile (skin sense organ; largest sense organ in body), kinesthesia (sensory system for body posture, orientation, and bodily movements), and vestibular (sense of balance)

positive reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by presenting positive stimuli, such as food. Any stimulus that, when presented after a response, strengthens the response.

negative reinforcement

Increasing behaviors by stopping or reducing negative stimuli, such as shock .Any stimulus that, when removed after a response, strengthens the response. (Note: negative reinforcement is not punishment.)

positive punishment

the administration of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

negative punishment

the removal of a stimulus to decrease the probability of a behavior's recurring

Ivan Pavlov

discovered classical conditioning; trained dogs to salivate at the ringing of a bell

Unconditional Stimulus (US)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that unconditionally—naturally and automatically—triggers a response.

conditioned stimulus

in classical conditioning, an originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response

UCR (unconditioned response)

an unlearned, natural response to the UCS

conditioned response (CR)

in classical conditioning, the learned response to a previously neutral (but now conditioned) stimulus (CS)

neutral stimulus (NS)

in classical conditioning, a stimulus that elicits no response before conditioning

Neutral Response (NS)

stimulus that normally doesn't evoke a response (bell)

Rescorla's Contingency Model

the more times two things are paired, the greater the learning will take place

operant conditioning

the learning of voluntary behavior through the effects of pleasant and unpleasant consequences to responses