Class 3 (Epistemology continued)

Epistemology

• By testing hypotheses, we can learn about and make sense of our world

• But... our value judgments and expectations can impede the search for objective knowledge

• If generations of people were wrong about how horses gallop, what else are we viewing inaccurately?

Rene Descartes Impact on our thinking

• French scientist, mathematician, and philosopher (1596-1650)

• Famously known for doubting everything that could be doubted

• Descartes cautioned in Meditations on First Philosophy (1641) that because our senses can be manipulated, simply trusting our senses can be imprecise (Meditations I-VI)

  • Empirical observations can be imprecise

Can empirical observations be imprecise?

yes

What can I know with certainty

• All one cannot genuinely doubt is the existence of oneself

• I think, therefore I exist

• Cogito Ergo Sum

Brain in a Vat

• Descartes also asked:

  • How do you know that you are not a brain in a vat?

• If you cannot know whether you are in the real world or a simulated one, awake or dreaming, you cannot be sure that your beliefs about the world are true!

Question (Descartes)

How do you know that you are not a brain in a vat?

What is real?

• We could be subjects of a massive deception

• Back to cogito ergo sum

• However, Descartes noted:

  • “I must not rashly accept all the apparent data of sensation; nor, on the other hand, call them all in question”

Noted by Descartes

“I must not rashly accept all the apparent data of sensation; nor, on the other hand, call them all in question”

The current focus of philosophy of science

1. The activities of scientists

2. The nature of scientific theories

3. The nature of scientific knowledge and how it is obtained

• how ‘science’ is scrutinized and validated

The activities of scientists (Current focus of Philosphy of science)

• methods used in discovery

• values attached

The nature of scientific theories (Current focus of Philosphy of science)

effects of science on non-scientists and nonscientific institutions/practices

The nature of scientific knowledge and how it is obtained (Current focus of Philosphy of science)

how ‘science’ is scrutinized and validated

But why? (Reading articles)

1. Expose assumptions and allow self-conscious criticism

2. Think deeply about what we are doing

3. Identify ethical issues and dilemmas

4. Inform science policy and regulations

Taking responsibility for our views

• Many people think that if a question is controversial, then what someone thinks about it is just a matter of opinion

• But even for controversial issues, there is evidence supporting various views

• The evidence may be reliable or unreliable, and it may give good or poor support to the position

Epistemic Responsibility

Involves embracing the idea that we want to be accountable (responsible) for our knowledge (episteme)

Empricism

knowledge is gained from sense-based experience

• Observation and experimentation produce knowledge

• Empiricists believe science is empirical in nature

  • E.g., Aristotle: “father of science”

  • E.g. Galileo: heliocentrism and impact on 17th c. Scientific Revolution led to reference as the “father of modern science”

Rationalism

knowledge gained from reason (not from our 5 senses) E.g., no observation needed to know that 1+1 =2

• Rationalists believe reason is superior to sense perceptions

• ‘Reason’ is independent of experiences

  • Involves logic and thinking

  • The mind’s ability to form judgments using logic

  • Rejects emotion, belief, tradition

Inductivism

knowledge is gained through repeated experiences and empirical observations

• Based on induction

  • generalizing from many to one

• Assumes observed regularities will continue

• Francis Bacon argued people can make errors in interpreting their 5 senses, but empirical science is the best option for making sense of the world

• Prove a hypothesis through repeated experiments

Raphael’s The School of Athens (1511)

depicts, among other things, the contrast between empiricism and rationalism as the highest form of knowledge

Plato (pointing up)

indicates reason (thinking) is the highest form of knowledge

Aristotle (pointing down)

disagrees indicating empirical (observing) is the highest form of knowledge

Thomas Kuhn (1922-1996)

• argued it is a myth that science:

  • Proceeds by accumulation

  • Follows a logical method

  • Is not inherently political

  • Is critical and open-minded

• Instead, science proceeds by paradigm shifts

Paradigms

an accepted model or pattern

• ‘Normal Science’ involves working within a paradigm

• ‘Scientific Revolutions’ replace paradigms

  • tradition shattering research.

Paradigms provide:

• List of admissible problems

• Techniques to solve problems

• Evidence

Paradigm shifts

brief periods of revolution and discovery then long periods of normalcy

From Philosophy of Science to Analytical Philosophy

• In pondering questions such as “what is a paradigm?” we are engaging in analytical philosophy (within the branch of metaphysics)

• Analytical philosophy involves linguistic based analysis of concepts

• The goal is conceptual clarification and distinguishing kindred phenomena

Transition to Metaphysics

• “Doing philosophy” requires an attitude of open inquiry and respect for different views

• Requires attention to detail in how we use words and language

• Requires really listening to others and the world around us

What to think about

what makes a sport a sport?