TES [ALL Part 1]

[True/False]
Transport Is A Derived Demand

True, transport demand is due to the demand for something else (e.g. movement of goods & people)

What is an ‘Impact pathway’

The sequence of events that lead to an impact on an organism's form and survival.

What is the Impact Identity Formula?

Impact = Activity × Energy × Emissions × Damage (AEED)

What is a ‘Damage factor’?

A variable that depends on species, location, source, and population.

What are the units of Emissions factor?

kgCO2/kWh [massCO2/Energy]

What are the units of Energy intensity?

kWh/km [Energy/Distance]

What Happened In The Great Smog of 1952?

A temperature inversion that caused 4,000 - 12,000 deaths due to trapped pollutants.

What is Environmental Law?

A legal framework that emerged in the 1960s focusing on the protection of the environment.

Principle Of Environmental Law:

What is ‘Ecological sustainability and resilience’ ?

The principle of protecting, restoring, sustaining, and enhancing the environment.

Principle Of Environmental Law:

What is ‘Intragenerational equity’ ?

Fair and equitable sharing of the benefits of nature.

Principle Of Environmental Law:

What does ‘Intergenerational equity’ mean ?

Present generation must ensure equitable access to the benefits of the environment by successive generations.

Sustainability Definition (1/6)

What is the Brundtland Definition?

Meet today’s needs without limiting future generations’ ability to meet theirs.

Sustainability Definition (2/6)

What is ‘The Triple Bottom Line’ ?

The 3 E’s: Environment, Equity, Economy

Sustainability means balancing environmental and social impacts with economic returns.

Sustainability Definition (3/6)

What is ‘The Natural Step’ ?

Sustainability: nature is not steadily overloaded by

1) Extracted substances

2) Man-made substances

3) Physical damage, and human needs are met globally.

Sustainability Definition (4/6)

What is ‘The Ecological Footprint’ ?

The land and water area needed to supply what our needs and absorb our wastes, compared with what the biosphere can regenerate.

Sustainability Definition (5/6)

Graedel and Klee's Sustainable Emissions and Resource Usage

1) Determine the resource limit
2) Pick a time period so total use or emissions over that period stays within the limit.

Sustainability Definition (6/6)

What is the Marshall and Toffel Hierarchy?

A framework by Marshall and Toffel that categorizes unsustainable actions into 4 levels of importance.

What does ‘Recapture’ mean?

Recycling or sequestration (locking away) of resources.

What is Level 1 of unsustainability (Marshall and Toffel Definition) ?

Actions that endanger the survival of humans if continued at the current forecasted rate.

What is Level 2 of unsustainability (Marshall and Toffel Definition) ?

Actions that significantly reduce life expectancy or other basic health indicators.

What is Level 3 of unsustainability (Marshall and Toffel Definition) ?

Actions that may cause species extinction or violate human rights.

What is Level 4 of unsustainability (Marshall and Toffel Definition) ?

Actions that reduce quality of life or are inconsistent with other values, beliefs, or aesthetic preferences.

What is an ‘External Cost (Externality)’ ?

A cost IS NOT included in the market price of goods and services being produced, borne by those who create it.

What is meant by ‘Internalising an Externality’ ?

Charging polluters with the damage costs of the pollution generated by them (e.g. Tax)

What is the ‘Polluter pays principle’ ?

A principle that incentivizes polluters to reduce their pollution by making them pay for the damage they cause.

What are examples of Internal costs in transport?

E.g. Manufacturing costs of vehicle, Fuel costs, Tax to maintain infrastructure & Insurance costs.

What are examples of External costs in transport?

E.g. Congestion, Accident-related costs covered by government, Air pollution healthcare costs, Greenhouse gas emissions damage costs, Noise affecting property prices & Impacts of accidents on water quality.

What was the UK's Clean Air Act 1956?

The world's first legislation aimed at controlling air pollution.

What are the Principles of environmental law ?

Fundamental guidelines that govern the relationship between humans and the environment.

What is an Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) ?

Project-based assessments, focused on the biophysical or natural environment.
(Required by law for certain projects)

What is an Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) ?

Assessments of policies, programmes or plans, focused on the natural environment.

What is an Environmental Statement (ES) ?

The written material submitted to the local planning authority in fulfilment of the EIA regulations.

What was the Climate change Act 2008?

Legislation aimed to reduce CO2 emissions by 80% by 2050 relative to 1990, revised to 'net-zero' by 2050 in 2019.

Environmental capital

Includes Landscape, Townscape, Historic Environment, Biodiversity, Water Environment, and relative changes (qualitative and quantitative).

6 stages of an SEA

1. Set the context and establish the baseline.

2. Set of SEA and develop alternatives.

3. Assess the effects of the plan and alternatives.

4. Proposal of mitigation measures.

5. Consultation on the draft plan and Environmental Report.

6. Monitoring implementation of the plan.

What is setting the context (1) and establishing the baseline (2) ?

1) Identifying existing national/local objectives
2) Considering a 'do-nothing' scenario.

What is meant by ‘Biodiversity’ ?

The variety of life in the world or in a particular habitat or ecosystem.

Local Development Plans

Plans that guide the future development of a local area, including land use and infrastructure.

What is the purpose of an EIA ?

To protect the environment by ensuring that planning authorities consider significant environmental effects before granting permission for projects.

What are the Five Stages of an EIA ?

The Five Stages:
1) Screening (Is an EIA required ?)
2) Scoping (Determine Extent)
3) Preparation of an Environmental Statement,
4) Planning application
5) Decision making.

What is an Environmental Statement ?

A document that outlines the potential environmental impacts of a proposed development and includes comments/representation taken into account by the local planning authority.

What types of projects fall under category Annex I of an EIA ?

Mandatory projects that require an EIA, (Long-distance railways, Airports with a basic runway length > 2100m).

What types of projects fall under category Annex II of an EIA ?

Discretionary projects that may require an EIA, (urban development and railways).

What is a Sensitive area ?

Areas that may need an EIA if a project is proposed in them. e.g. (SSSIs, SPAs, national parks, and AONBs)

What occurs during Scoping in an EIA?

The stage of the SEA process that determines the content and extent of matters to be covered in the SEA report.

What occurs during Screening in an EIA ?

The initial assessment to determine whether an EIA is required for a proposed project.

Transport Appraisal

Evaluation of transport projects and schemes (includes EIA requirements as per WebTAG)

What does AONB stand for?

Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty

Areas of protected landscapes in the UK, relevant in EIA considerations.

What does SSSI stand for?

Site of Special Scientific Interest

Areas that may require an EIA if a project is proposed nearby.

What does SPA stand for?

Special Protection Area

Areas that are important for bird conservation, relevant in EIA considerations.

What are Transport schemes and what assessment do they require?

Projects related to transportation, including road and public transport schemes, that may require an EIA.

What is ‘Particulate matter (PM2.5)’ ?

A type of air pollutant that consists of tiny particles or droplets in the air that can be harmful to human health. (2.5 micrometres)

How are Nitrogen oxides (NOx) produced and why are they dangerous?

From burning fuel, they can contribute to air pollution and respiratory problems.

How is Carbon monoxide (CO) produced and why is it dangerous?

Produced from incomplete combustion, can be harmful when inhaled in large amounts.

What are Greenhouse gases (GHGs) ?

Substances that absorb radiation. They adversely affect the environment by interfering with the earth's radiation balance with impacts on the climate.

What is meant by a ‘Mixing ratio’ ?

The number of moles of a pollutant per mole of air, often expressed in parts-per-million (ppm) or parts-per-billion (ppb).

Conversion from mass concentration to mixing ratio

The conversion from mass concentration (χ) in µg/m3 to mixing ratio (𝑟) in ppm is given by 𝑟= 8.314 𝑇 𝑝MW 𝜒, where 𝑇 is temperature (K), 𝑝 is pressure (Pa), and MW is molecular weight (g/mol).

What is a ‘Primary pollutant’ ?

An air pollutant emitted directly from a source.
e.g. NO & NO2

What is a ‘Secondary pollutant’ ?

A pollutant that is not directly emitted as such, but forms when other pollutants (primary pollutants) react in the atmosphere.

What is an example of a secondary pollutant?

Ozone is formed when hydrocarbons (HC) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) combine in the presence of sunlight

How is acid rain formed?

When sulphur dioxide (or nitrogen oxides) react with water.

What health impacts does Lead (Pb) pose?

Toxic, affects the nervous system oxidizes biological tissue including vegetation. 

Sources of particulate matter

Incomplete combustion

What is soot made up of?

It is made up of black carbon, organic carbon, sulphuric acid, brake wear, and tyre and road wear.

Black carbon

A component of soot with a diameter <100 nm from incomplete combustion of fuel.

Why is black carbon dangerous?

It absorbs sunlight and warms up the atmosphere.

What is organic carbon?

Carbon derived from lubrication oils and unburned fuel. (Comes from things that don’t burn completely).

What does PM10 mean, and what are they often called?

Particles with diameter dp < 10 µm, referred to as 'Coarse particles'.

What does PM2.5 mean, and what are they often called?

Particles with diameter dp < 2.5 µm, referred to as 'Fine particles'.

What does PM0.1 mean, and what are they often called?

Particles with diameter dp < 0.1 µm (100 nm), referred to as 'Ultrafine particles'.

Mass basis of NOx

When reported on a mass basis, it is assumed all of the NO is converted to NO2, with the formula: mass(NOx) = mass(NO2) + mass(NO)×(MW(NO2)/MW(NO)).

How is NOx formed?

High temperatures in combustion (e.g. jet engines) lead to reactions between nitrogen and dissociated oxygen to form NOx via the thermal mechanism.

Rate-limiting reaction for NOx

Reaction 2 (N2 + O ⇌ NO + N) is rate-limiting and highly dependent on temperature.

NOx-CO2 trade off

The relationship where higher combustion temperatures lead to increased NOx emissions but also improve engine energy efficiency and reduce CO2 emissions.

What is particulate matter?

A mixture of solid particles and liquid droplets found in the air, ranging in size from approximately 1 nm to 10 μm.

What are nitrogen oxides?

Gases formed during high-temperature combustion processes.

What is meant by ‘incomplete combustion’ ?

When there is not enough oxygen to allow the fuel to react completely, results in the production of CO (Carbon Monoxide).

What is photochemical smog?

A complex set of chemical reactions involving sunlight, NOx, and volatile organic compounds that form ground level ozone and secondary organic particles.

What causes the brown color of photochemical smog?

The brown color is due to nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and aerosol scattering.

What is the role of stratospheric ozone?

Stratospheric ozone forms the ozone layer, which absorbs UV radiation from the sun, protecting humans and other organisms.

What is tropospheric ozone and why is it harmful?

Tropospheric ozone is a secondary pollutant that is harmful to human health and a component of photochemical smog.

What is the photostationary state in relation to tropospheric ozone?

In a clean troposphere, a simplified mechanism involving NO2, O2, and O3 leads to stable concentrations of tropospheric ozone without net production.

What happens to ozone concentrations near pollution sources?

Near cities, CO and other hydrocarbons can lead to increased ozone concentrations due to additional reactions.

How does carbon monoxide (CO) contribute to ozone formation?

CO is oxidized to CO2 by hydroxyl radicals, producing hydroperoxyl radicals that oxidize NO to NO2, which then participates in ozone production.

What is the overall reaction summarizing CO's contribution to ozone formation?

CO + 2O2 ⟶ CO2 + O3.

What factors influence tropospheric ozone production?

Tropospheric ozone production depends on emissions of NOx and hydrocarbons (VOCs) and sunlight.

What is the significance of diurnal variations in ozone levels?

Ozone levels peak after NO and NO2, and can peak downwind of a city, classifying it as a regional pollutant.

How can ozone concentrations be controlled?

Ozone control depends on the emissions of NOx and VOCs reducing emissions can have different effects based on the region's pollution characteristics.

What is a VOC limited region regarding ozone control?

In a VOC limited region, reducing VOC emissions reduces ozone concentrations, while reducing NOx emissions may increase ozone.

What is a NOx limited region regarding ozone control?

In a NOx limited region, reducing NOx emissions decreases ozone concentrations, while reducing VOC emissions does not affect ozone levels.

What is the role of sunlight in the formation of photochemical smog?

Sunlight initiates the chemical reactions that lead to the formation of ground-level ozone and secondary organic particles.

What is the significance of the ozone isopleth chart?

The ozone isopleth chart helps determine the best policy for controlling ozone concentrations based on local emissions.

What are the main components involved in the formation of tropospheric ozone?

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and sunlight are the main components involved.

Why is mitigating ozone pollution complex?

The atmospheric chemistry involving ozone production is complex, making it challenging to reduce ozone levels simply by cutting emissions.

What is the role of inert molecules in the formation of ozone?

Inert molecules act as third bodies in the reactions that produce ozone, facilitating the reaction processes.

What is the relationship between hydrocarbons and ozone production?

Hydrocarbons can lead to ozone production through complex chemical reactions, particularly when they come from unburned fuel.

What is the impact of photochemical smog on air quality?

Photochemical smog contributes to poor air quality and poses health risks to humans and the environment.

What do emissions inventories rely upon?

Emissions factors (EFs) derived from measurements.

What is the formula for calculating emissions factors?

Emissions factor (g/km) = Emissions of pollutant (g) / Distance driven (km).

What factors can emissions factors (EFs) depend on?

Vehicle characteristics, age or emission standard, vehicle speed, fleet mix, cold-start and degradation factors.