Anatomy & Physiology Exam 3

Calcitonin

lowers blood calcium and stimulates the osteoblasts

Calmodulin

which is a blood protein that transports calcium

Rheumatoid arthritis

is a long-term autoimmune disorder that primarily affects the joints. It typically results in warm, swollen, and painful joints. Pain and stiffness often worsen following rest

Most commonly the wrist and hands are involved with the same joints typically involved on both sides of the body

Dendritic cells are typically found in…

high numbers within a tumor

an impingement

means the bone is inside too tight

C.P.L.=

hips

femoral acetabular impingement

knee osteoarthritis

progressive thinning of hyaline cartilage

in osteoarthritis we also get a formation of

osteophytes(a bone outgrowth)=

bone spurs on the hell and can exacerbate (make it worse)

basic defintion of portal system

is when two capillary beds hit a blood vessel before returning to the brain

hypothalamic-hypophyseal system (anterior pituitary)

hormones made and where are they released from

Diuresis

urine formation

dehydration when one consumes alcohol

FLATPEG

from anterior pituitary

E from FLATPEG =

endorphins 

Vasopressin aka

ADH

ADH levels go up then urine volume goes down

caffeine make us want to urinate more

ADH has 3 names

antidiauretichormone

arginine vasopressin

vasopressin

ethanol

only alcohol our liver can tolerate

Gouty arthritis (joint Gout disease)

nitrogenous waste usually from biometabolism from amino acids if we can’t remove them they will crystallize and urine cid crystals will go to our lower extremities, the hallux, bc gravity and crystals will collect in the big toes

what are factors for gout

diet

genetics

under-excretion of uric acid by the kidney

Skeletal muscle movement

produce tension to move things pulling, squeezing

Skeletal muscle posture

baseline tension exerted at all times

Skeletal muscle joint stability

constant tension holds joints together

atrophy

non-usage→muscle atrophy→less stable

opposite of hypertrophy

skeletal muscle thermogenesis

heat

shiver

skeletal muscle source of nutrition

starvation we end up using out muscle as food source

Glutamate(AA)

savory

meat Umami

most prevalent amino acid found in our skeletal muscle

Excitable Tissues

respond to chemical and mechanical stimuli by generating organized movement of electrical charges across membranes=muscle potentials or action potentials

all tissues have rMP but only 2 have action potential (nervous and muscle)

contractile-shortening

sliding filament theory=

actin & myosin do not shorten

extensible

tolerate stretching

elastic

snap back into position after stretch

skeletal muscle fibers can be classified based on two criteria

how fast do fibers contract relative to others

how do fibers regenerate ATP

cultural geography=

founder effect

Type 1 slow oxidative

O2

fibers contract relatively slowly and use aerobic respiration (oxygen and glucose) to produce ATP. They produce low power contractions over long periods and are slow to fatigue (NT, ATP, pH )

marathhon

ADD

ADD=

less force; more mitochondria and more capillary density

Type 2 A

fast oxidative fibers have fast contractions and primarily use aerobic respiration but because they may switch to anaerobic respiration (glycolysis) can fatigue more quickly than SO fibers

Type 2B

fast glycolytic fibers have fast contractions and primarily use anaerobic glycolysis. the FG fibers fatigue more quickly than the other sprinters

opposite of Type I

Each fascicle

is a bundle of muscle fibers formed by fusion of multiple myoblasts in embryo multiple myoblast nuclei maintained in each fiber sarcoplasm specializations

First energy source used is for skeletal muscle fibers is

creatine(creatine kinase=add PO4)

ADP back to ATP

people who supplement their creatine goes into the skeletal muscle and water follows it=muscle swells=looks bigger

sarcos

greek=flesh

myo=

Latin=muscle

protein filaments=

myofilaments (actin & myosin)

cytoplasm=

sarcoplasm

cell membrane

sarcolemma

SER=

sarcoplasmic reticulum

Muscle structure-

organization of muscle tissue, connective tissue and blood/nerve supply

A fascia

plural fasciae or fascias

is a band or sheet of connective tissue, primarily collagen, beneath the skin that attaches to, stabilizes, encloses, and separates muscles and other internal organs

is classified by layer, as superficial fascia, deep fascia, and visceral or parietal or by it function and anatomical location

fascia

Interstitium=

space between cells! capillary bed…leaks fluid (normal)…lymphatic system picks up fluid…ends up in the thoracic duct (largest lymphatic vessel)….dump this fluid(lymph)…into a vein in the neck

muscle components

a nexted “cylindrical” arrangement

muscle cell, myofiber, myocyte=

are all the same

significance of T-tubule

AP to go deep Ca++ gets out! troponin binds the Ca++

molecular interaction facilitates

conformational change

myosin=Myosin ATPase

1st step of muscle contractile cycle

Ca++ is release from sarcoplasmic reticulum and troponin binds the free Ca++

the troponin/tropomyosin complex “moves” thus exposing myosin head binding sites ON actin. When myosin heads bind actin, this is called cross bridge formation

2nd step of muscle contractile cycle

the myosin heads will “pul” actin over the top of the myosin. This is called the “power stroke”Remember, actin and myosin do NOT shorten during muscle contraction

Actin and myosin contract “over” the top of each other 

3rd step of muscle contractile cycle

A new ATP binds to myosin heads. This causes the myosin head to detach from actin

if one were out of ATP it would result in cramps vs rigor mortis

4th step of muscle contractile cycle

Myosin can not only bind ATP, but can hydrolyze ATP to ADP+PO4 which “re-cocks” the myosin head so that it can re-attach to another actin molecule

relaxed sarcomere can what

shortne to varying degrees up to maximum (tetanus)

do shorten

H-band

I-band

actual sarcomere

does not actually shorten

A band

actin

myosin

twitch=

tetany

Tension developed via filament sliding is

SQUID

Tenson developed via filament sliding is predicted on an——-that radiates from the NMJ

electrical impulse

Research done by Hodgkin and Huxley on

long axon from squid

contraction is coupled to a…

prior electrical signal

Na+ Leak Channel

is important in the “pacemaker” of the heart as it promotes the rhythmic impulse of the heart in the sino-atrial node

vagus (X)=

parasym

NMJ synaptic anatomy/physiology

reference to acetyl choline receptor

sarin nerve gas

SSRIs and Botox here

SNAPs & SNAREs

vesicle of NT can bind to pre-synaptic membrane then exocytose contents into synapse; BOTOX inteferes with this

Botox can lead to

migraines

Role of Ca++ in NT vesicle

de-docking

How voltage gated ion channels orchestrate depolarization/repolarization of an action potential

open & close = “gates”

AP stimulus Ca++ release from terminal cisterns;

uptick in sarcoplasmic Ca++ sets in motion the interaction of thick filaments with thin filamnets

repeated headcycling leads to

sarcomere shortening

Muscle sorness is simply

pain associated within a muscle

causes of muscle soreness

over usage, injury, certain viruses, interferons, tension, stress

Immediate muscle soreness

the muscle burns during the actual act of muscle contraction

wall sits and quadriceps are ON fire

lactate to liver=cori cycle

24-48 hours after lifting or over-exertion

leads to tiny micro-tears in the muscle, needs to be repaired

testosterone levels go up in both genders—> satellite stem cell recruitment adding nuclei=more txpn & translation true muscle building

soreness that lasts for weeks

type of soreness is usually extreme overexertion coupled with engaging in activity the body has NOT adjusted to previously

when your body is really only trained to play in perhaps 1 or 2 games in one day, tendons & ligaments are “stretched” and that repair can take an extended period of time because reduced blood flow to those tissues may delay repair

cartilage, tendons, and ligaments is…

very slow to repair and may require surgery to expedite healing

Myopathy

is a disease of the muscle in which the muscle fibers do not function properly

primary defedt is within the muscle as opposed to the nerves or elsewhere

muscle cramps, stiffness, and spasm can also be assiciated with myopathy

myopathy results in

muscular weakness

myopathy greek name

muscle disease

capture myopathy

can occur in wild or captive animals, such as deer and kangaroos, and leads to morbidity and mortality

usually occurs as a result of stress and physical exertion during capture and restraint

muscular disease can be classified as

neuromuscular or musculoskeletal in nature

50% of human cancers have a 

mutated p53 gene

myositis

rare but is inflammation of muscle associated with infection, autoimmune activity, medicines, and injury can be considered both neuromuscular and musculoskeletal

muscular dystrophy

refers to a group of more than 30 genetic disease that cause progressive weakness and degeneration of skeletal muscles used during voluntary movement

these disorders vary in age of onset, severity, and pattern of affected muscles. all forms of MD grow worse as muscles progressively degenerate and weaken. many individuals eventually lose the ability to walk. although MD can affect several body tissues and organs, it most prominently affects the integrity of muscle fibers

Muscular dystrophy disease causes

muscle degeneration

progressive weakness

fiber death

fiber branching and splitting

phagocytosis

chronic (long-term) vs acute (short-term) or permanent shortening of tendons and muscle. also, overall muscle strength and tendon reflexes are usually lessened or lost due to replacement of muscle by connective tissue and fat

phagocytosis

muscle fiber material is broken down and destroyed by scavenger cells

enzymes lower…

Ea to get to transition state faster, speed rxn, no change in delta G

RMP steps

-Na+/K+ ATPase pump

-1st degree ATP hydrolysis, delta G= delta H (-)-TdeltaS (+)

(Rxn coupling)

-Biosynthesis +delta G to - delta G

“open/closed”=

gates

RMP

All 4 tissues, but muscle/nervous have action potentials

Repolarization

Depolarization

Next to be depolarization

“wave”

of depolarization (down/along) a membrane

“all or none”

phenomenon once it starts it (AP) cannot be stopped

Depolarization

starts at threshold (T)

(A.P. starts)

No such “bigger/smaller” A.P.

more/fewer A.P.

what happens in depolarization

Na+ in

what happens in repolarization

K+ out