Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood Questions

What significant change in body growth occurs after the first two years of a child's life?

Body growth slows, and the child's shape becomes more streamlined.

What are epiphyses, which emerge during skeletal changes in early childhood?

Growth centers in which cartilage hardens into bone.

By what percentage does the brain's weight increase between ages 2 and 6, relative to its adult weight?

The brain increases to 90% of its adult weight.

Which areas of the brain, devoted to executive function, see especially rapid growth during early childhood?

Prefrontal-cortical areas.

What is the primary function of the cerebellum?

It aids in balance and control of body movement.

What structure in the brain stem is responsible for maintaining alertness and consciousness?

Reticular formation.

What vital role does the hippocampus play in brain function?

It is vital for memory and spatial understanding.

Which inner brain structure is responsible for processing novelty and emotional information?

The amygdala.

What is the corpus callosum?

A large bundle of fibers connecting the two cerebral hemispheres.

Which gland secretes hormones that control body growth?

The pituitary gland.

How does persistent childhood poverty affect gray matter volumes in the brain?

Children in the poorest families have gray matter volumes in these areas that are 8-10% below average.

What age range corresponds to Piaget's preoperational stage of cognitive development?

Years 2 to 7.

According to the source, what is the most flexible means of mental representation for a child?

Language.

How does pretending contribute to a young child's development?

Young children practice and strengthen new representational schemes through pretending.

What is sociodramatic play?

Make-believe play with others that begins by the end of the second year and increases in complexity.

What concept involves viewing a symbolic object as both an object in its own right and a symbol?

Dual representation.

According to Piaget, what is egocentrism in preoperational thought?

The failure to distinguish others' symbolic viewpoints from one's own.

What problem did Piaget use to demonstrate egocentrism in children?

Three-mountains.

What cognitive limitation did Piaget believe was responsible for animistic thinking?

Egocentrism.

Define the concept of 'conservation' as it relates to Piaget's theory.

The idea that certain physical characteristics of objects remain the same, even when their outward appearance changes.

What is 'centration' in the context of preoperational thought?

Focusing on one aspect of a situation while neglecting other important features.

What is 'irreversibility' as a limitation of preoperational thought?

An inability to mentally go through a series of steps in a problem and then reverse direction.

When do children in Western nations typically acquire conservation of number, mass, and liquid?

Between 6 and 7 years of age.

When do children in Western nations typically acquire conservation of weight?

Between 8 and 10 years of age.

What is hierarchical classification?

The organization of objects into classes and subclasses on the basis of similarities and differences.

What do follow-up research findings suggest about 3-year-olds' awareness of others' vantage points?

They show clear awareness on simplified tasks with familiar objects.

By what age do children typically give psychological explanations for people and animals, but rarely for objects?

By age 2½.

According to follow-up research, how do preschoolers flexibly organize knowledge into categories?

They use both nonobvious and perceptual information.

What educational principle from Piaget involves opportunities for spontaneous interaction with the environment?

Discovery learning.

What does the Piagetian principle of sensitivity to children's readiness to learn entail?

Building on children's current thinking to challenge their incorrect views.

What does the Piagetian principle of 'acceptance of individual differences' entail in a classroom setting?

Planning for activities for individual children and small groups.

What did Piaget call children's self-directed utterances?

Egocentric speech.

How did Vygotsky view private speech?

He viewed it as the foundation for all higher cognitive processes.

Under what conditions do children use private speech more frequently?

When tasks are appropriately challenging.

How does private speech change with age, according to Vygotsky?

It is internalized as silent, inner speech.

According to research, at what level of task difficulty is the rate of private speech highest?

At a moderate difficulty level.

What is Vygotsky's 'zone of proximal development'?

A range of tasks that a child cannot yet handle alone but can do with the help of more skilled partners.

What is 'intersubjectivity' in the context of Vygotsky's theory?

A process where two participants who begin a task with different understandings arrive at a shared understanding.

Define 'scaffolding' as it relates to Vygotsky's theory.

Adjusting the support offered during a teaching lesson to fit the child's current level of performance.

What do Vygotskian classrooms promote?

Assisted discovery, where teachers guide children's learning with explanations, demonstrations, and verbal prompts.

What is a key challenge to Vygotsky's theory regarding the means through which children learn?

Verbal dialogues are not the only means through which children learn.

What is fast-mapping in vocabulary development?

Connecting new words with underlying concepts after only a brief encounter.

What is the 'mutual exclusivity bias' in word learning?

The assumption that words refer to entirely separate categories.

What is syntactic bootstrapping?

A word-learning strategy that involves discovering word meanings by observing how words are used in syntax.

What is overregularization in grammar development?

The overextension of grammatical rules to words that are exceptions (e.g., 'I goed to the store').

The approach where children rely on word meanings (semantics) to figure out grammatical rules is called what?

Semantic bootstrapping.

What is pragmatics in the context of language?

The practical, social side of language, involving effective and appropriate communication.

By what age can children typically adjust their speech to fit the age, gender, and social status of their listeners?

By age 4.

What are 'recasts' as a strategy for supporting language learning?

Restructuring inaccurate speech into its correct form.

What are 'expansions' in the context of supporting language learning?

Elaborating on children's speech to increase its complexity.

List two ways adults can enhance make-believe play in early childhood.

Provide sufficient space and play materials; encourage play without controlling it.

List two more ways adults can enhance make-believe play in early childhood.

Offer a variety of realistic and non-functional materials; ensure children have rich, real-world experiences.

What cognitive improvements are seen in preschoolers as their brains develop between ages 2 and 6?

They improve in physical coordination, perception, attention, memory, language, logical thinking, and imagination.

How do preschoolers' notions of magic change with age?

Their notions of magic are flexible and appropriate, and magical beliefs decline with age.

Which group of children tends to use private speech more and over a longer period?

Children with learning problems.

In Piaget's theory, what stage is characterized by a major increase in representational activity?

Preoperational.

What are two key features of social interaction that promote cognitive development, according to Vygotsky?

Intersubjectivity and scaffolding.

What type of play involves complex combinations of schemes and becomes less self-centered over time?

Make-believe play.

What is a major limitation of Vygotsky's theory regarding basic cognitive skills?

It says little about how basic motor, perception, attention, and memory skills contribute to higher cognitive processes.

Between ages 2 and 3, what is the typical word order of English-speaking children's simple sentences?

Subject-verb-object.

What is one reason that make-believe play is difficult to study experimentally?

It involves spontaneous qualities like intrinsic motivation, positive emotion, and child control.

According to research, atypical brain development in children from the poorest families accounts for what percentage of their lower cognitive scores?

15-20%.