Bio 2 Final

When and how did the origin of jaws and paired fins aid in evolution?

450 mya; increases stability and manipulate prey. The jaws evolved from first pair of gill arches, the modern fishes made first appearance 400 mya

Fish Adaptations

streamlined, paired fins allow maneuverability, unpaired fins on back and belly increase stability; most tissues are denser than water, so have to be able to control amount of gas in body to maintain buoyancy; the gills aid with gas exchange

Chemoreception of fish

ability to detect chemicals in environment (smell and taste); fish have 1 or 2 nostrils, taste buds in mouth, may have barbels

Laterlines and Inner Ears

allow to sense vibration in water and perceive sound waves

Ampullae of Lorenzini (cartilaginous fish only)

detect weak electric field; possibility to why hammer heads evolved the way they did

Jawless fish

only 80 species, no plates or scales on skin, eel like body, cartilaginous skeleton (made of cartilage), unpaired fins, and notochord remains throughout life

Hagfishes (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata)

class myxini, bottom dwellers, cold marine water

Lampreys (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata)

class cephalaspidomorphi, 1/2 free-living, 1/2 parasitic (feed on blood)

Cartilaginous fishes (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata)

class chondrichthyes, have flexible, light-weight material known as cartilage that have tough fibers of protein; also have moreable jaws, skeletons, and paired fins. Covered in placoid scales (small, toothlike spines that feel like sandpaper) that reduce turbulence when swimming

Sharks (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class chondrichthyes)

fusiform body shape (torpedo shape), largest whale shark (59ft) and basking shark (49ft): both filter feeders; their teeth are continually replaced throughout lifetime

Rays and Skates (Phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrate, class chondrichthyes)

flattened bodies with paired, wing-like pectoral fins; bottom dwellers

Ratfishes (Phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class chondrichthyes)

25 species and deep water fish

Adaptations of class chondrichthyes

gas exchange in gills, requires continuous flow of water through mouth, over gills, out gills; unless rays and skate who use spiracles (water goes in an opening on top of head, not the mouth); the waste is urea (concentrated ammonia)

Bony Fishes (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata)

superclass Osteichthyes, the bones are harder and heavier than cartilage, they have lungs (few) or swim bladders (most) to maintain buoyancy; they have scales to reduce friction

Lobbed Finned fishes (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, superclass osteichthyes)

class sarcopterygii, fleshy fins supported by bones, and have two groups: Lungfishes (6 species that have both lungs and gills) and coelacanth (1 species that were thought to be extinct until 1938, when found in the deep ocean); extinct lobe-fishes are ancestors to amphibians

Ray-finned fishes (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, superclass osteichthyes)

class Actinopterygii; fins supported by flexible rays (probably evolved from scales), very diverse

Bony Fish External Anatomy (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, superclass osteichthyes)

have operculum (hard plate that covers and protect gills), caudal fins (swimming, tail), dorsal and anal fin (keep upright), pelvic and pectoral fin (navigation), and scales (minimize friction)

Bony FIsh Internal Anatomy: Skeleton (phylum Chordata, subphylum vertebrata, superclass osteichthyes)

have skull, spine, spinal column, pectoral girdle (support pectoral fin), pelvic girdle (supports pelvic fins), and ribs

Bony Fish Internal Anatomy: Digestive System (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, superclass Osteichthyes)

mouth then pharynx then esophagus then stomach the intestine then anus; have liver that secretes bile (breaks down fat), gallbladder (stores bile), and Pancreas (releases digestive enzymes)

Bony Fish Internal Anatomy: Circulatory System (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, superclass Osteichthyes)

delivers oxygen and nutrients to cells, transports waste (carbon dioxide and ammonia) to gills and kidneys for elimination; consists of heart, blood vessels, and blood; they consists of a 2 chamber heat (atrium: entry ports and ventricle: receives blood and oxygen from the lungs)

Bony Fish Internal Anatomy: Respiratory System (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, superclass Osteichthyes)

rapid gas exchange in gills

Bony Fish Internal Anatomy: Excretory System (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, superclass Osteichthyes)

kidneys filter dissolved chemical waste, which results in urine (ammonia, ions, and water), which is then carried to the bladder, where it is stored until expelled

Bony Fish Internal Anatomy: Swim Bladder (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, superclass Osteichthyes)

thin-walled sac in abdominal cavity which contains oxygen, carbon dioxide, and nitrogen from bloodstream; it also regulates bladder to help move up and down

Bony Fish Internal Anatomy: Nervous System (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, superclass Osteichthyes)

brain, spinal cord, nerves, and various sense organs; the Fore brain is the olfactory bulb for smell and has the cerebrum, which processes information. Then the midbrain, which is the optic tectum (visual, auditory, and lateral line systems). Finally, the hindbrain has the cerebellum (coordination) and the medulla oblongata (controls body functions).

Bony Fish Internal Anatomy: Reproduction (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, superclass Osteichthyes)

In external fertilization, eggs are in the females and sperm is in the males; however, in a few species they have internal fertilization and give birth to live young (females carry fertilized eggs in the body), and some do spawning to attract a mate

Amphibian Adaptation to Land (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Amphibia)

lobe-finned fish are ancestors, early amphibians required more oxygen than fish ancestors and had higher metabolism (had to have efficient hearts to deliver oxygen efficiently)

Amphibian: Early Amphibians (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Amphibia)

sarcopterygian most closely resembled amphibians, oldest fossil 360 mya; they had 4 strong limbs: forelimbs homologous to pectoral fins and hind limbs homologous to pelvic fins; probably still spent most of time in water hunting fish (teeth were large and sharp)

Amphibian diversification (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Amphibia)

359-299 mya split into 2 main evolutionary lines; one line gave rise to modern amphibians and the other gave rise to reptiles; there are 4500 species today

Modern Amphibians Key Characteristics (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Amphibia)

metamorphosis, moist thin skin with no scales, lack claws and often webbed feet (if have feet), most use gills, lungs, and skins in respiration; eggs lack shells, usually fertilized externally

Order Anura (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Amphibia)

frogs and toads (frog with bumpy skin), “tailless”, adults are carnivores; reproduce in water, eggs hatch into tadpoles

Order Caudata (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Amphibia)

salamanders, elongated bodies, long tails, moist skin; range from fully aquatic to land dwelling ; both larval and adults are carnivores; may have internal fertilization

Order Gymnophiona (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Amphibia)

caecilians, legless, often blind, carnivores, internal fertilization, burrowing amphibians

Skin of amphibians (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Amphibia)

used for respiration and protection; Permeable to gasses (CO2 and O2) and water; has mucous glands to keep skin moist (secrete foul tasting/poisonous substances), but are vulnerable to dehydration and pollution (indicator species)

Skeleton of amphibians (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Amphibia)

terrestrial vertebrates must have strong internal skeleton used to support for walking or standing; pectoral girdle (Shoulder and supporting bones) and pelvic girdle (“hips”); specialization for jumping and landing

Circulatory System of Amphibians: 2 separate loops (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Amphibia)

pulmonary circulation: deoxygenated blood from heart to lungs, then back to heart; systematic circulation: oxygenated blood from heart to the body, then back to heart

Circulatory System of Amphibians: 3 Chambered Heart (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Amphibia)

deoxygenated blood from body to right atrium (receiver of blood), pulmonary veins carry oxygen rich blood from lungs to left atrium; blood mixes in ventricle, then the ventricle pumps blood to lungs (deoxygenated) and other body tissues (oxygentated)

Respiration of Amphibians (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Amphibia)

larval amphibians breath through gills and skin; adults breath through lungs and skins; cutaneous respiration breath through skin

Digestion of Amphibians (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Amphibia)

all adults are carnivores, many larvae are herbivores, they can swallow large amounts of food because of elastic esophagus and stomach, the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, liber (produces bile to break down fats), gallbladder (stores bile), small intestine, large intestine, and cloaca; waste move from stomach to duodenum (upper portion of small intestine) to ileum (middle portion); the intestines remained coiled because of mesentery; indigestible waste leaves small intestine to large intestine to cloaca; the waste from kidneys, urinary bladder, and gonad also collect in cloaca, and exists through vent

Excretory System of Amphibians (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Amphibia)

kidneys filter nitrogenous waste (metabolic, cellular, etc.) from blood to form urine

Nervous System of Amphibians (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Amphibia)

brain has olfactory lobes (used for smell), cerebrum (behavior and learning), optic lobes (used for sight), cerebellum (used for muscle coordination), and medulla oblongata (used for organ functions)

Sense organs of Amphibians (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Amphibia)

larval stages have lateral line; lost after metamorphosis, also have nictitating membrane (protects eye), tympanic membrane (eardrum), and columella (small bone that connects tympanic membrane to inner ear)

Reproduction of Amphibians (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Amphibia)

frogs use external fertilization; however in amphibians use courtships and fertilization that differs b/w species

Life cycle of amphibians (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Amphibia)

metamorphosis; eggs, tadpoles, young adult, then adult; hormone thyroxine controls

Parental Care of amphibians (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Amphibia)

common, often male remains with eggs, some females swallow eggs and hatch and mature in stomach (stomach stops producing acid until young are released)

History of Reptiles (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class reptilia)

rose from amphibians, 1st were small 4-legged vertebrates that ate insects (plentiful) about 300 mya; during the Mesozoic era (251-66mya) reptiles diversified (“Age of the Reptiles”) and were the dominant of the large vertebrates

Evolutions of Dinosaurs (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class reptilia)

extinct reptiles, about 235-85 mya, dinosaurs ruled the earth; evolved from thecodonts (extinct group of crocodile-like reptiles)

Triassic Dinosaurs (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class reptilia)

oldest fossils, 235 mya; by end of triassic period, had replaced the thecodonts

3 reasons dinosaurs were so successful (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class reptilia)

fast and agile because of body structure (legs positioned right under body); well adapted to dry conditions found at time

Jurassic and Cretaceous Dinosaurs: Golden age of Dinosaurs (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class reptilia)

large abundance and diversity; there were sauropods (largest land animal of all time) and carnivorous theropods evolved (preyed on large herbivorous dinosaurs)

Dinosaur Extinction (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class reptilia)

asteroid impact hypothesis: most widely accepted, hit Mexico and blocked sunlight, climate change led to mass extinction; Multiple impact hypothesis: mass extinction was caused by multiple asteroid hits

Order Chelonia (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class reptilia)

250 species of turtles (aquatic) and tortoises (terrestrial); fossils: 200 mya; differed little from today’s specimens; shells (modified rib cage) have carapace (dorsal part of shell) and plastron (ventral part of shell); they have sharp beak instead of teeth, all lay eggs

Order Crocodilia (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class reptilia)

reptiles most closely related to dinosaurs, have 21 species, large, heavy bodied aquatic reptiles, tropical, sub-tropical regions; all are carnivores

Order Squamata (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class reptilia)

5500 species of lizards and snakes, upper jaw loosely connected to skull, most structurally diverse group of reptiles, found worldwide

Lizards (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class reptilia, order squamata)

3000 species, most prey on small insects and mammals, a few feed on vegetation; 2 species are venomous (Gila monster and beaded lizard); they have autotomy (ability to detach tail and regenerate); largest lizards belong to monitor group (have forked tongue like snakes)

Snakes (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class reptilia, order squamata)

2500 species; distributed worldwide, lack legs; 100-400 vertebrate with ribs attached to each; overlapping muscles allow for quick and agile movements; prey swallowed whole; upper and lower jaws can be unhinged and move independently

Order Rhynchocephalia (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class reptilia)

contains only the tuataras of genus Sphenodon; few small islands of New Zealand; have spring crest; most have disappeared because of introduced predators and changing landscape

Amniotic Egg (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class reptilia)

first fully terrestrial vertebrate (do not need water to reproduce); they encase embryo in secure, self-contained aquatic environment; provide more protection than jelly-like amphibian eggs

Watertight skin (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class reptilia)

have thick, scaly, dry skin to prevent water loss; keratin in protein in scales; also served to protect from injury and infection

Respiration and Excretion (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class reptilia)

efficient to conserve water; lungs for gas exchange; excrete nitrogenous waste in form of uric acid which requires little water for dilution

Circulation (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class reptilia)

two loops (like amphibians); heart has 2 tria, and a partially divided ventricle (septum) where the blood does not mix, kept separated by the pumping of heart; crocodiles have 2 totally separate ventricles used to conserve energy, an inactive reptile may stop breathing (needs very little oxygen)

Respiratory System (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class reptilia)

lungs are large and divided into chambers; contain many small sacks called alveoli, which increases the surface area of lungs and the amount of oxygen that can be absorbed; in most snakes, only the right lungs actively functions

Nervous System (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class reptilia)

brain same size as amphibians; cerebrum is much larger (controlling and integrating behavior); optic lobes are also large; eyes are usually large to detect prey; and have jacobson’s organ (in roof of mouth) that is sensitive to odors, and a tongue collects particles and delivers to organs and is found in all reptile (except crocodiles) but most highly evolved in snakes

Thermoregulation (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class reptilia)

the control of body temp.; ectotherm (warm body by absorbing heat from surroundings) is found in reptiles, fish, amphibians; endother (rapid metabolism generates heat) found in mammals and birds; Advantages of ectothermy is that is requires less energy and less food, but is dormant in the cold weather, run/swim at max. level for only short amount of time

Reproduction (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class reptilia)

the oviparity encloses the egg in a tough protective shell and deposits it in a favorable environment, such occurs in most reptiles, birds and 3 species of mammals; the ovoviviparity is when the eggs are laid shortly before hatching or right after (receive no nutrition from mother other than yolk in egg), seen in pit vipers; Viviparity is when the shell does not form and young are retained in female’s body until birth (nutrients are transferred to embryo via placenta), most mammals and a few species of snakes and lizards

Parental care (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class reptilia)

many provide NO parental care; a few lizards and snakes will warm and guard eggs until hatched; crocodiles and alligators provide the most care

Birds characteristics (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class aves)

they have feathers (unique to birds), wings (forelimbs are modified to wings), lightweight, rigid skeleton, endothermic respiration (high metabolic rate keeps at 104-106 F), unique respiratory system (most efficient of terrestrial vertebrates), beak, and oviparity (amniotic eggs encased in calcium containing shell)

Evolution of Birds (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class aves)

living dinosaurs from line of theropods; single line of theropods survived mass extinction event that killed all other dinosaurs gave rise to modern birds

Archaeopteryx (phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Aves)

150 mya, first bird-like dinosaur fossil; had characteristics of both birds and dinosaurs

Origin of flight (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class aves)

wings/feathers may have an origin in courtship; first birds probably glided

After Archaeopteryx (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class aves)

began diversifying about 140 mya; only 2 of modern orders appeared at end of Cretaceous period (mass extinction of dinosaurs); by 40 mya, most of modern bird orders had originated

Feather of Today (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class aves)

modified scales, made of keratin, have down feathers (insulation), contour feathers (give streamlined shape, coloration, and insulation), and flight feathers (special contour feather on wings and tails)

skeleton and muscles (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class aves)

light and strong, thin and hollow bones, many bones are fused so more rigid, which provides stability during flight, trunk, hip vertebrae and pectoral, pelvic girdles highly fused; Have sternum to attach flight muscles; Pygostyle is fused terminal vertebrae that supports tail feathers (steering and breaking); flight muscles account for 50% of body weight

Metabolism (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class aves)

endothermic, high metabolic rate, cannot go very long without eating, may fluff up feathers for warmth, and aquatic birds also have layer of thin fat for insulation

Digestion and Excretion (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class aves)

highly efficient system; have no teeth and aren’t able to chew; the food passes through the esophagus then to crop (part of esophagus) to moisten and store the food, the brought to the proventriculus (acids and enzymes break down food) stomach and Gizzard (kneads and crushes food and may contain small stones to aid in the process), which is then brought to the small intestine, where enzymes from the liver break up fats and absorb the nutrients and delivered to blood; Rapid process; has 2 kidneys filtering cellular waste and secrete uric acid, but liquid waste is not stored in bladder and the waste exits through ureter and cloaca

Respiration (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class aves)

require large amounts of oxygen; elaborate and highly efficient system; air enters through paired nostrils through trachea and enters primary bronchi then enters lungs; 75% of air bypasses lungs and goes to posterior air sacs, which can extend into bones helping in functioning for respiration and reducing density; however, gas exchange does not happen here and is just stored and redirected; when exhaled, deoxygenated air goes to posterior sacs and oxygenated air (from anterior sacs) goes to lungs; which allows birds to always have oxygen in lungs, even during exhaling

circulatory (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class aves)

4 chambered heart, 2 separate ventricles (like crocodiles and mammals); deoxygenated blood always kept separate from oxygenated blood; rapid heartbeat (chickadee = 1000 beats per min); Avian red blood cells have nuclei

nervous system and sense organs (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class aves)

large brains relative to size, cerebellum highly developed for coordinating flight, cerebrum large for navigation, nest building behaviors, caring for young; color vision, binocular vision, can perceive depth; lack external ears; have ear openings; sense of smell is very strong

Reproduction (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class aves)

male: 2 testes anterior to kidneys, sperm passes via vas deferens into cloaca

female: single ovary located on left side, releases egg into oviduct, fertilized by sperm here; fertilized egg moves through oviduct, encased in shell, and exits through cloaca

nest building and parental care (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class aves)

holds eggs, provides shelter, attracts mates; ranges from holes in ground to tree tops; one or both parent incubate eggs with brood patch (thickened patch of skin)'; have extensive parental care seen in precocial (hatched young can walk, swim feed as soon as hatch (ducks))and altricial (hatch blind, naked, and helpless (bluebirds))

Diversity (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class aves)

beak and feet tell about where lives and what eats; about 10,000 species, 23 orders

Order Galliformes (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class aves)

fowl, turkey, pheasants, chickens, grouse, and quails; terrestrial with little ability to fly; high grain diet, large, strong gizzard; precocial young

Order Piciformes (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class aves)

tree-dwellers, woodpeckers, honeyguides, toucans, nest in tree cavities

Order Psittaciformes (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class aves)

parrots and relatives; 360 species, in tropics; strong hooked beak and eat seeds and fruits; vocal birds, can mimic speech

Order Ciconiiformes (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class aves)

herons, storks, ibises, egrets, raptors, penguins, vultures, diurnal hunters (daytime)

Order anseriformes (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class aves)

waterfowl; swans, geese, ducks; aquatic, web feet; flattened bill; precocial young

order columbiformes (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class aves)

pigeons and doves; 320 species; plump and small headed, feed on fruit or grain

Order passeriformes

Most familiar North American birds; “perching” birds; eat insects, fruits, seeds, nectar'; many are songbirds: males produce elaborate songs to attract mates

Order strigiformes (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class aves)

owls and nocturnal raptors; sharp, curved beak, talons

Order apodiformes (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class aves)

hummingbirds and swifts; 430 species; nectar or insects as food

Order struthioniformes (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class aves)

largest birds, ostriches, emus, rheas, cassowaries

major characteristics of mammals (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class mammalia)

endothermy ( generate internal heat through metabolism); hair that all mammals have, contain keratin; completely divided: 4 chambers, 2 ventricles kept seperate; milk (all females produce milk to feed offsprings; mammary glands); single jaw bone (lower jaw made of just single bone); specialized teeth (modified for different functions)

Synapsids (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class mammalia)

gave rise to mammals and their extinct relatives; single opening in bone just behind eye socket; first wer small, looked like modern lizards; had specialized teeth

Therapsids (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class mammalia)

subset of synapsids; gave rise to mammals , some may have had hair and were endothermic

early mammals (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class mammalia)

appeared during triassic period (along with dinosaurs); coexisted for more than 150 million years, size of mice; teeth adapted for feeding on insects; hid by day, hunted at night to avoid dinosaurs; milk production evolved by end of triassic

endothermy (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class mammalia)

metabolism generates heat; provides energy to perform strenuous activities; requires more oxygen (unique respiratory and circulatory systems); body above environmental temperature (insulation keeps heat from being lost to environment

circulation (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class mammalia)

2 atria and 2 ventricles; septum completely divides ventricles; deoxygenated and oxygenated blood never mix; allows for more efficient delivery of oxygen

Respiration (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class mammalia)

large lungs with millions of alveoli; can pull air 2 ways: expand chest cavity (like reptiles) or use diaphragm muscle to contract and enlarge thorax

Feeding and Digestion (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class mammalia)

Teeth: incisor (cut), canines (grip, tear, and puncture), premolars (shear, shred, cut, or grind), molars (grind, crush, or cut)

Baleen: shee of keratin that hangs down from under upper jaw (whales)

Special Adaptations for Digesting Plants (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class mammalia)

cellulose is hard to digest; no enzymes to break down; adapted a 4 chambered stomach: one is a true stomach, rumen (symbiotic bacteria that break down cellulose), food is regurgitated and swallowed several times (cud), ruminants found in cows, sheep, goats, giraffes, and deer; Adapted with cecum, a large sac that branches off of small intestine, it has bacteria, no regurgitation, and is found in horses, Zebras, rodents, rabbits, and elephants

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Nervous System (phylum chordata, subphylum vertebrata, class mammalia)

large brains; cerebrum is largest part that evaluates input from senses, control movements, behavior, memory and learning, it is also folded and fissured to increase surface area; the importance of each sense is related to the environment; echolocation (emitting high frequency waves, bouce off objects, so bats can determine size, direction, distance and speed of object