AP HuG Exam Review - Unit 4

political geography

a branch of human geography concerned with the spatial analysis of political systems

political map

a map that shows the spatial organization of the countries and territories on the entire globe at a given point in time

state (country)

an independent political unit with a centralized authority that makes claim to sole legal, political, and economic jurisdiction over a region with defined boundaries

independent state

a state that rules itself and is not subject to the authority of another state

sovereign state

a state that possess the sole authority over the land and people within it boundaries

nation

a community of people bound to a homeland and possessing a common identity based on shared cultural traits such as language, ethnicity, and religion

nation-state

the ideal political geographical unit; one in which the cultural borders of a nation correspond with the state borders of a country

nationalism

sense of belonging to and self-identifying with a national culture; people with a strong sense of nationalism derive a significant part of their social identity from a sense of belonging to a nation

stateless nation

an ethnic group or nation that does not possess its own state and its not the majority population in any nation

multinational state

a country containing multiple national, ethnic, and religious groups within its boundaries

multistate nations

ethnic groups territorially divided by one or more international boundaries

autonomous region

a subdivision or dependent territory of a country that has a high degree of self government

semi-autonomous region

a subdivision or dependent territory of a county, that has some degree of, but not complete, self-government

self-determination

The process by which a country determines its own statehood and forms its own allegiances and government

core area

a small territorial nucleus from which a country grows in area and over time

escarpments

abrupt slopes that break up the general continuity of the terrain

effective sovereignty

The idea that a state's power to enforce its sovereignty may extend beyond its territory and varies over time and from country to country

devolution

the movement of power from the central government to regional governments within the state

ethnonationalism

a form of nationalism in which the nation is defined in terms of ethnic identity; typically declare self-determination

neocolonialism

the set of economic and political strategies by which wealthy and powerful countries indirectly maintain or extend their influence over less wealthy areas

peripheral states

states that have relatively little industrial development, simple production systems focused mostly on agriculture and raw materials, and low levels of consumption of manufactured goods

core states

states that have the most advanced industrial and military technologies, complex manufacturing systems, external political power, and the highest levels of wealth and mass consumption

shatterbelt

region of continuing and persistent fragmentation due to devolution and centrifugal forces

chokepoint

a strategic narrow passage, such as a narrow valley on land or at sea as a narrow body of water, that restricts traffic to another region

strait

a narrow body of water connecting two larger bodies of water

boundary

a clearly demarcated line that marks both the limits of a territory and divisions between territories; often called a border at the global scale

median line principle

an approach to dividing and creating boundaries at the midpoint between two places

borderland

a region straddling both sides of an international boundary where national cultures overlap and blend to varying degrees

frontier

a region at the margins of state control and settlement

enclave

a territory surrounded by a country but not ruled by it

exclave

part of a national territory separated from the main body of the country to which it belongs

delimited

Describing how boundaries are fixed or defined to identify their limits (typically what is seen on a map)

demarcated

a boundary that is marked on the ground using visible physical objects, such as fences, walls, or signs

relic boundary

a boundary that no longer functions as an international border

superimposed boundary

a boundary that is placed on an area without regard to existing boundaries

subsequent boundary

a political boundary that developed along with the cultural landscape; physical terrain is not the determining factor for the boundary

antecedent boundary

a boundary that was identified before an area was settled

geometric boundary

A boundary that has regular, often perfectly straight, lines drawn without regard for an area's physical or cultural features

consequent boundary

a boundary that is drawn to accommodate existing cultural differences; created based off the physical terrain of a place

demilitarized zone (DMZ)

an area in which treaties or agreements between nations, military powers, or contending groups forbid military installations, activities, or personnel; usually lies along an established frontier or boundary between two or more military powers or alliances

• Blocks flow of trade and people

• Ex: North and South Korea 38th parallel after WWII

buffer state

a politically and economically weak independent country that lies between the borders of two powers

• Ex: Mongolia separating China and Russia

• Ex: Siam (Thailand) between England and French colonies

satellite state

a nominally independent country that is politically, militarily, and economically controlled by a more powerful state

• Ex: Russia’s control of Poland, Hungary, Romania, etc (Eastern Bloc) after WWII gave them more power - also served as a buffer zone from West

United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)

conference organized to define territorial boundaries and rights to the sea

• Territorial Sea

  • 12 nm FULLY sovereign territory

  • Exclusive fishing rights

• Contiguous Zone

  • 24 nm

  • State can enforce its customs, immigration, and sanitation laws and can also pursue vessels out of its territorial waters

• EEZ

  • Coastal states have the sole right to explore, exploit, develop, manage, and conserve all water resources lying 200 nm beyond the land

• High seas

  • resource access for landlocked countries

  • open to all states

  • Outside any national jurisdiction

exclusive economic zone (EEZ)

Zone that extends 200 nautical miles from shoreline in which coastal states have the sole right to exploit, develop, manage, and conserve all water resources lying beyond the land

voting district

a territorial division for casting votes in public elections; generally, only those who live in the voting district are permitted to cast their votes there

Electoral College

The process by which the United States elects its president and vice president; a group of electors who meet every four years to cast their votes for the president and vice president

reapportionment

the process by which the 435 seats in the U.S. House of Representatives are divided proportionately by population among the 50 states following every U.S. census

redistricting

the process of drawing new boundaries for U.S. congressional districts to reflect the population changes since the previous U.S. census

gerrymandering

the manipulation of voting district boundaries to favor a particular political party, group, or election outcome

packing

Gerrymandering a voting district by concentrating all of the opposition party into one district, thereby creating a large majority of that party in the district while ensuring that it cannot win any election

cracking

Gerrymandering a voting district by dividing opposition votes into many districts, thus diluting the opposition's vote to ensure it does not form a majority in any district

subnational units

the smaller areas into which a larger state is divided (for example, states in the U.S. or provinces in
Canada)

unitary state

an independent state that concentrates power in the central government and grants little authority to the provinces

federal state

an independent country that disperses significant authority among subnational units

irredentism

the political claim to territory in another country based on ethnic affiliations and historic borders

terrorism

the calculated use of violent acts against civilians and symbolic targets to publicize a cause, intimidate or coerce a civilian population, or affect the conduct of the government

international terrorism

Terrorism that transcends national boundaries and is intended to intimidate people in other countries

domestic terrorism

Acts by individuals or groups against the citizens or government of their own country

state terrorism

Terrorism committed by government agents whose leaders have ordered them to murder, imprison, or force into exile perceived enemies of the state

subnational terrorism

Terrorism committed by nongovernment groups that feel wronged by their government

ETA

Basque separatist organization in Spain that used terrorism in its campaign for an independent Basque state.

supranational organization

an alliance between three or more countries that work together to achieve common goals, such as economic, cultural, or military reasons. Member countries give up authority and sovereignty to the group

United Nations (UN)

international organization created in 1945 to replace the League of Nations, that is responsible for maintaining international peace and security, developing friendly relations among nations, achieving international cooperation, and harmonizing the actions of nations

European Union (EU)

a political, economic, and social union of 28 independent European countries that promotes the free movement of people, goods, and services, and capital among its members

• Free trade zone - no taxes

• No wars

• Can compete globally w US and China due to having a competitive edge bc of open borders/free trade

• Large market to sell to = more money

• Had to sacrifice some sovereignty (all countries switched to euro)

African Union (AU)

A continental organization of African states that seeks to drive Africa's growth and economic development through cooperation and integration of member states

Arctic Council

An international governmental forum that promotes interaction among the Arctic states and indigenous communities on common Arctic issues, particularly sustainable development and environmental protection

regional trading bloc

A multi-country agreement that reduces or eliminates taxes to promote the free flow of goods and services across international borders

economies of scale

cost advantages that can come with a larger scale of operations

North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA

a 1994 trade agreement between Canada, the United States, and Mexico; revised as the United States-Mexico-Canada Agreement (USMCA) in 2020

Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

A regional intergovernmental organization comprising 10 countries in Southeast Asia to promote intergovernmental cooperation and facilitate economic growth, social progress, and cultural development in the region

North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)

an intergovernmental military alliance among 29 North American and European countries with the purpose of guaranteeing the freedom and security of its members

failed state

a state whose political or economic system has become so weak that the government is no longer in control

uneven development

The increasing gap in economic conditions between core and peripheral regions as a result of the globalization of the economy

equitable infrastructure

the construction and improvement of foundational services such as access to energy resources throughout the country

cultural cohesion

Cultural unity; occurs when the members of a society are culturally united

iconography

a set of traditional symbols or symbolic forms associated with the country and its citizens

Similarities and differences between self-determination and sovereignty

Similarity:

• Both seek to control territory and people within a specified area

Differences:

• Self determination

  • identified by individual nations, but does NOT always receive international recognition

  • Seeks to create its own state

• Sovereignty

  • Identified by the state, which has received international recognition

  • Seeks to control all nations within its borders

Which came first - colonialism or imperialism?

Colonialism was the result of imperialism

• Imperialism means using a country for natural resources from a far, THEN colonization - exploiting colony for raw materials

Balkanization

Process in which a state breaks down due to conflicts among its ethnicities

Examples of balkanization

• Soviet Union after 1991 (Cold War)

  • Yugoslavia (formerly controlled by SU) split into smaller independent countries as ethnic groups fought for control over their own territory

• Sudan and South Sudan

  • Split bc of religious difference (North was Islam while South was Christianity) - led to major civil war + genocide

• Czechoslovakia - peaceful split

Territoriality

Political and cultural strategy used to claim power over an area of lands and its people and resources - set boundaries; influenced by cultural forces and economic interests - disagreement on allocation of control of territory

Strait of Hormuz

• For shipping oil to East Asia

• Iran threatened to block it = reduce revenue and oil shortage = pipelines built in SA

Shatterbelt region

Region caught between larger external powers

• Ex: Kashmir btwn India and Pakistan

Examples of Shatterbelts

• Sub-Saharan Africa Shatterbelt

  • Northern Africa - influenced by Muslim culture while Sub-Saharan Africa consists of traditional African cultures

• Middle East Shatterbelt

  • Turkey, Syria, Iraq - over who controls Tigris-Euphrates River

  • Kurds fighting for territory and independence

  • Straight of Hormuz - Persian gulf countries and oil are threatened by Iran’s control of the strait

  • Iran-Iraq war

Definitional border dispute

When borders are interpreted differently based on the language of a treaty by two or more states

• Russian-Japanese Kursk Islands under Soviet control in 1945

Locational (territorial) border dispute

Disputes about WHERE a boundary should be, how it is delimited (mapped), or demarcated

• Ex: Mississippi River is agreed on as the boundary but what happens when it moves?

• Ex: Crimea claimed by Russia

Operational (functional) border dispute

When borders are agreed on, but passage across/how it functions is a problem

• Ex: US-Mexico wall/border

• Ex: New passport requirements for entry into US after 9/11

Allocational (resource) border dispute

Dispute that involves conflicting claims of the natural resources in a region, which lie near or between a boundary; who gets what?

• Ex: Mexico-United States River allocations for irrigation and drinking water on the Colorado River

Value of islands

Islands owned by states GREATLY increase EEZ of a state

• Ex: US - US EEZ covers more area than any other country; almost as big of an area s the US itself

Negative impacts of UNCLOS

• Unregulated polluting or dumping

• Overfishing or unregulated types of fishing

• Unsustainable use of oceans natural resources

• Tensions/conflicts between states

UNCLOS example - The Spratly Islands

South China Sea - in the middle of many major trade routes, fishing supply, and natural resources - territorial dispute between China, Taiwan, Philippines, Malaysia, Vietnam, and Brunei

• China made artificial islands to lay claim to more resources, encroaching on other state’s maritime territorial zones

UNCLOS example - The Arctic Circle

Ex: Arctic Ocean-Challenges are being made related to land, deep water natural resources, and sea passages for ships

• ice is melting = incr maritime claims, shorter trade routes/shipping lanes for cheaper transp. costs, & undersea oil and natural gas deposits

Territorial disputes between: Russia, US, Canada, Norway, and Denmark

• Russia put flag on ocean floor making claims

• Canada claiming new shipping routes

Consequences of Gerrymandering

1. Lack of cohesion - further spread out/oddly shaped = the less voices are heard of those more distant from the congressmen

2. Partisan Power - bc redistricting is done by gov, “party-safe” districts can strengthen/weaken a political party; done through stacking

3. Lower voter participation - New district boundaries can confuse voters and cause them not to participate

4. Create or preserve minority-majority districts; done through packing

Characteristics of Federal States (Authority of Government, hierarchy of power, types of countries where commonly used, strengths/weaknesses)

• Authority of govt: Shared between central and state/local govts, devolution is a natural part of its function

• Hierarchy of Power: Multiple levels, each handle dif things

  • Regional: Econ, edu, envir

  • Central: Foreign affairs, national defense, justice, etc

• Type of country where commonly used: Multiple ethnic groups (multinational states) w minority populations

• Strengths:

  • Different functions and responsibilities of govt found at national, state, and local level → more substantial self-rule = reduced centrifugal forces and separatist movements

  • Quicker to address more local issues

• Weaknesses

  • Contradictory laws can exist btwn levels of government

  • Often slower and more difficult to gain consensus and respond to national issues

Ethnic Separatism

Full political separation from larger group (ethnonationalism)

Devolutionary Forces (examples)

• Physical geography - incr isolation

• Economic problems

• Social problems - distinct religious, linguistic, or historical regions

• Disintegration of states

• Internet’s effect on sovereignty - countries restrict access, leads to devolutionary protests

• Democratization

Supranationalism

The process of countries forming an alliance for political, economic, or cultural reasons. Countries that join a supranational organization give up some of their sovereignty in exchange for membership.

Pros and Cons of Supranationalism (ESPN)

Positives:

• E - Reduces costs and eliminates trade barriers = eco growth + political stability

• P - Increased political and military strength in face of external threat

• E/S - Increased quality of life when member states’ eco/GDP grows bc govt incr spending on infrastructure, health care, edu, etc

• E - Eco growth = greater access to employment and higher paying jobs

• E - Being a part of a supra org gives countries a competitive edge in world trade

Negatives:

• Member countries have to give up some sovereignty and have to follow the org’s laws/policies, internally limiting them economically and politically

• if 1 eco crashes = ALL are affected = political instability