historical context to Electoral College

why did the idea of selecting a president by national popular vote divide the Founders?

• Federalists feared direct democracy and mob rule

• Anti-Federalists wanted stronger state input.
  → Division reflected tension between popular sovereignty and federalism.

What compromise did the Founders settle upon? How did the Electoral College originally work?

• Created Electoral College as middle ground between Congress and people.

• Each state chose electors = Senators + Representatives.
  • Each elector cast two votes, one for president, one for vice president.

what did the Founders think were the main benefits of the Electoral College? 

• Prevented uneducated or impulsive popular voting

• Preserved state influence within federal structure

• Filtered public will through “wise men” electors.

How are electoral votes apportioned between states? Why was it adopted?

• Votes = state’s total Senators + Representatives

• Adopted to balance small and large states’ power, ensuring federal equity.

What are presidential contingent elections? Why included?

• If no candidate wins a majority, House picks president (one vote per state)

• Added as safeguard against deadlocks or fragmented votes.

Why did the Electoral College work well in first two elections?

Washington was unopposed and unanimously respected, so no partisan split

What problems later emerged with original design?

• Rise of political parties caused tied tickets (e.g. Jefferson–Burr 1800)

• System never anticipated party competition.

What did the 12th Amendment do? Why ratified?

• Required separate ballots for president and VP

• Ratified (1804) to prevent future deadlocks like 1800.

How has the selection of electors changed over time? What drove it?

• Originally chosen by legislatures; now by popular vote in each state.

• Driven by democratisation and expansion of suffrage.

How do 48 states award delegates today?

Winner-takes-all: candidate with most votes in state wins all electors.

What’s different about Maine and Nebraska?

Use district system: two electors for statewide winner, one per congressional district

How and why has behaviour and expectations of electors changed? What are faithless electors?

• Now party loyalists, expected to vote as pledged

• Faithless electors = those who break that pledge (rare, legally restricted).

how does the Electoral College work today

• Citizens vote for slates of pledged electors.

• Candidate with 270+ votes wins presidency.

• Congress certifies results in January.

Why are so many votes wasted? Why is distribution of support key?

• Only state pluralities matter; surplus votes don’t affect result.

• Candidates need broad but efficiently spread support.

What were Madison’s views on winner-takes-all?

Opposed it — believed it distorted popular will and encouraged factional dominance

What are misfire elections? How many have there been? Could proportional/district systems prevent them?

• Misfire = candidate wins presidency but loses popular vote (e.g. 1824, 1876, 1888, 2000, 2016)

• Proportional/district methods could reduce, not eliminate, risk.

Why can even popular vote winners have a questionable mandate?

Small EC margin can hide national division; legitimacy questioned (e.g. Bush 2000)

How do EC supporters counter claims of weak legitimacy?

Say system protects federalism, ensures geographic diversity, and gives clear national winner

How has the US Constitution become more democratic since ratification?

Expanded suffrage, direct election of senators (17th Amendment), primary system, and near-universal voting rights

How and why did the Supreme Court establish “one person, one vote”?

Baker v. Carr (1962) and Reynolds v. Sims (1964) → equal representation to prevent vote dilution

How does the EC undermine “one person, one vote”?

Small-state votes count more; winner-takes-all makes millions of votes irrelevant

Why do critics see geographic representation as outdated?

States seen as artificial barriers; modern democracy values individual equality, not state privilege

What is the National Popular Vote Interstate Compact? What does criticism reveal?

• States pledge EC votes to national popular winner once total = 270

• Critics argue it ignores federal balance, showing many voters prioritise equal individual votes over state power.

Why are both small and large states often overlooked in campaigns?

safe states (big or small) have predictable outcomes; campaigns avoid wasted effort

Where do candidates focus resources? What’s the impact?

• Focus on swing states (e.g. PA, WI, AZ)

• Boosts their turnout; neglect elsewhere depresses participation and narrows policy appeal.

Why might focus on swing states not be as problematic?

swing states shift over time and reflect diverse demographics; collectively represent national mix

How does the EC impact party candidates? Can third parties have influence?

• Encourages broad, centrist national coalitions

• Third parties shape debate or spoil votes (e.g. Nader 2000, Perot 1992).

What do EC supporters see as the main benefits of a two-party system?

Provides stability, clear choices, and legitimate majorities while avoiding fragmented outcomes