Social Psychology

Equity

a condition in which people receive from a relationship proportion to what they give to it.

Self-disclosure

revealing intimate aspects of oneself to others.

Altruism

unselfish regard for the welfare of others.

Bystander effect

the tendency for any given bystander to be less likely to give aid if other bystanders are present.

Social exchange theory

the theory that our social behavior is an exchange process, the aim of which is to maximize benefits and minimize costs.

Reciprocity norm

an expectation that people will help, not hurt, those who have helped them.

Social-responsibility norm

an expectation that people will help those needing their help.

Conflict

a perceived incompatibility of actions, goals, or ideas.

Social trap

a situation in which the conflicting parties, by each rationally pursuing their self- interest rather than the good of the group, become caught in mutually destructive behavior.

Mirror-image perceptions

mutual views often held by conflicting people, as when each side sees itself as ethical and peaceful and views the other side as evil and aggressive.

Self-fulfilling prophecy

a belief that leads to its own fulfillment.

Social psychology

the scientific study of how we think about, influence, and relate to one another.

Attribution theory

the theory that we explain someone’s behavior by crediting either the situation or the person’s disposition.

Fundamental attribution error

the tendency for observers, when analyzing others’ behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition.

Peripheral route persuasion

occurs when people are influenced by incidental cues, such as a speaker’s attractiveness.

Foot in the door phenomenon

the tendency for people who have first agreed to a small request to comply later with a larger request.

Role

a set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.

Cognitive dissonance theory

the theory that we act to reduce the discomfort (dissonance) we feel when two of our thoughts (cognitions) are inconsistent. For example, when we become aware that our attitudes and our actions clash, we can reduce the resulting dissonance by changing our attitudes.

Conformity

adjusting our behavior or thinking to coincide with a group standard.

Normative social influence

influence resulting from a person’s desire to gain approval or avoid disapproval.

Informational social influence

influence resulting from one’s willingness to accept others’ opinions about reality.

Social facilitation

improved performance on simple or well- learned tasks in the presence of others.

Social loafing

the tendency for people in a group to exert less effort when pooling their efforts toward attaining a common goal than when individually accountable.

Deindividuation

the loss of self-awareness and self-restraint occurring in group situations that foster arousal and anonymity.

Group polarization

the enhancement of a group’s prevailing inclinations through discussion within the group.

Groupthink

the mode of thinking that occurs when the desire for harmony in a decision-making group overrides a realistic appraisal of alternatives.

Culture

the enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, values, and traditions shared by a group of people and transmitted from one generation to the next.

Norm

an understood rule for accepted and expected behavior. Norms prescribe “proper” behavior.

Prejudice

an unjustifiable and usually negative attitude toward a group and its members. Prejudice generally involves stereotyped beliefs, negative feelings, and a predisposition to discriminatory action.

Stereotype

a generalized (sometimes accurate but often overgeneralized) belief about a group of people.

Discrimination

unjustifiable negative behavior toward a group and its members.

Just-world phenomenon

the tendency for people to believe the world is just and that people therefore get what they deserve and deserve what they get.

Ingroup

“Us”—people with whom we share a common identity.

Outgroup

“Them”—those perceived as different or apart from our ingroup.

Ingroup bias

the tendency to favor our own group.

Scapegoat theory

the theory that prejudice offers an outlet for anger by providing someone to blame.

Aggression

any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy.

Frustration-aggression principle

the principle that frustration—the blocking of an attempt to achieve some goal—creates anger, which can generate aggression.

Social script

culturally modeled guide for how to act in various situations.

Passionate love

an aroused state of intense positive absorption in another, usually present at the beginning of a love relationship.

Companionate love

the deep affectionate attachment we feel for those with whom our lives are intertwined.

Lev Vygostky (in regard to social psychology)

A Soviet psychologist known for his work on social development theory, emphasizing the role of social interaction and cultural context in cognitive development.

Albert Bandura (in regard to social psychology)

a psychologist known for his social learning theory and the concept of self-efficacy, emphasizing the role of observational learning in behavior.

Sigmund Freud (in regard to social psychology)

The father of psychoanalysis, Freud developed theories on the unconscious mind, defense mechanisms, and the influence of childhood experiences on behavior.

Alfred Adler (in regard to social psychology)

A psychoanalyst who founded individual psychology, focusing on concepts such as inferiority complexes and the importance of social interest.

Carl Jung (in regard to social psychology)

a psychologist who founded analytical psychology, focusing on concepts such as the collective unconscious and archetypes, and emphasizing interpersonal relationships and dynamics.

Abraham Maslow (in regard to social psychology)

A psychologist known for developing the hierarchy of needs, which outlines the stages of human motivation and personal growth.

Carl Rogers (in regard to social psychology)

A psychologist who developed client-centered therapy, emphasizing the importance of self-actualization, empathy, and unconditional positive regard in personal development.