T3 relationship between theory and methods

positivism

methodological method that advocates the use of natural sciences to the study of social reality

what are the 3 key principles for positivism

deductivism - generating a hypothesis that can be tested and allow explanations of the laws to be accessed

objectivity - value free and objective, no subjective feelings and opinions

scientific methodology - ppl should be studied using the same objective methodology as the natural sciences (bio/chem/physics)

interpretivism

rejects positivisms use of applying science

• qualititative

• people and institutions are fundamentally different from natural science and social world research should be done differently to the way plants and chemicals are studied

• ‘no facts only interpretations’

• prioritise valid data

• meanings and motives

3 key approaches:

• ethnographic

• rapport

• verstehen

what are 2 quantitative methods to gathering data and who favours quantitative methods?

questionnaires

structured interviews

positivists

qualitative methods and who favours it and why?

interepretivists - reject the scientific model to studying social world

• people and institutions are fundamentally different from that of natural sciences

• ‘there are no facts only interpretations’

• interpretivists favour qualitative methods as they argue social action can only be understood by interpreting the meanings and motives

• qual is greater in richness and depth qual allows to reconstruct and deconstruct

• interps favour valid data which is truthful, accurate, uncover meanings, motives, explanations behind a person or groups behaviour

methods:

• semi-structured interviews

• unstructured interviews

• ethnography

• types of observation

• overt participation observation

• overt-non participation

• covert participation observation

• covert non-participation observation

what do interps claim their research ensures

• ethnographic (conducting a detailed study of a groups culture)

• building a rapport (building a unique and trusting relationship so that the ones being studied feel comfortable to act naturally and answer truthfully)

• establishing verstehen (German word for empathetic understanding, better understanding on how the subject feels)

questionnaires

quantitative

• main method to gathering data in social surveys

• pre-written questions handed, posted, emailed to respondents

• some are structured (pre-determined list of questions)

• formal/ structured interviews = questions red out and filled on behalf of respondent by trained interviewers

• closed/ open questions

• closed = quant = contains series of questions with a tick box

• open = qual = respondent writes down what they feel/ experienced

• questionnaires = straightforward/ short/ clear as possible

• language that is properly understood must be used

• open questions harder to analyse

• generally most questionnaires are closed as it is easier to analyse

structured interviews

• quant data

• researcher reads out closed questions from an interview schedule (questionnaire) and ticks boxes/ writes down answers to pre-set fixed categories for the respondent

• woulkd’t deviate from the questions on the interview schedule

• interviewer is not allowed to encourage answers or add new questions they merely repay the standardised questions

• standardised questions = they are the same and completed in the same order

• data is converted into a quant form and expressed in stats, percentages, tables, charts, graphs

• favoured by positivists as they bear clearness like questionnaires

• favoured by pos as high reliability (can be repeated)

• representative sample (reflects the diversity of large population)

• CESW crime severe of England and Wales use structure interviews

• Labour force survey LFS uses structured interviews

semi-structured interviews

• interviewers have a list of question some open some closed

• following up or ‘probing’ questions can be asked by researcher

• interview is designed to allow the respondent to talk at length and in depth about their important subjects

• different respondents may deviate from the initial questions

• different form strutted interviews where all questions and pre-set/ no deviating

• key objective is to understand the perspective of the respondent rather than a generalisation on peoples behaviour/ experiences

• open questions = qualitative data

content analysis

systematic method to studying the content of docs/ media/ tv/ news papers/ letters/ films/ radio

produce quant and qual

quant = establish catagories such as ‘house wife’ or ‘paid emplyment’ and then study the number of selected tv programmes and place the characters into these categories and then wed get numerical data displaying 70% of women were depicted as house wives

qual = note down and describe the content of the media source eg studying islamophobia in the media and note weather they are negative/ positive like Pooles and alexanders study. we could then use these notes to write a detailed explanation of media messages and they representation

• practical/cheap

• representative

• reliable

• can be time consuming

• risk of subjectivity

longitudinal study

panel/ cohort study

panel = randomly selected national sample, exact same individuals over time, individual level changes, focus is data collection on at least two occasions, data collected from different types of cases within a panel framework: schools, people, households, organisations EG BHPS british household panel survey they are interviews annually on topics like voting behaviour

cohort = a group with shared characteristics, (born in same year, married on certain day) some participants will change EG UP series followed 14 british kids since 1964and studied how sc determine the lives of young people

pros:

• high validity as produced over time and provide data on opinions and behaviour

• representative in terms of time

cons:

• tiem consuming

• costly

• samples not always large

• people may drop out

• lack representativeness due to sample size and diversity

unstructured interviews

open ended questions/ no fixed/ preset/ standardised questions

• researcher gives a general idea they want the respondent to talk about

• qual data: in depth and about meanings

• main objective is to encourage respondents to talk freely about what they feel are important

• researchers contribution is deliberately minimal, provide non-verbal cues such as nodding or smiling to enough the respondent to talk but their role is mainly to observe and record rather that contribute or direct

• avoids influence on what’s being said

4 types of observation

• overt participant observation

• overt non-participant observation

• covert participant observation

• covert non-participant observation

overt participant observation

• researcher joins in watches, records behaviour and they know they’re being observed

• over = normally revealing the purpose of the research before asking to observe

• deviant or criminal gangs are less likely to wanna be observed

• generate rich detailed data as joining a gang helps to truly understand they expeirence

• Becker smoked weed to understand the meaning of drug taking in his group

• vanketesh took on the role of gang leader whilst observing black kings

• difficult to observe academically/ objectively when joining in

• difficult to find time to notetake and recall exactly what happened if your doing note taking after

• vulnerable to Hawthorne effect

overt non-participant observation

• researcher watches form the side Ines w/o getting involved

• subjects know they’re being observed

• eg teacher observing during lesson

• can be in a natural setting or behind a two way screen

• researchers may have a behaviour category sheet and record the number of times they observe the occur acne of a certain behaviour (how many times parents use gender-specific language with their child)

• generates quant data

• qual data if researcher describes what they’re observing other wise it just note taking the amount of times in happens

covert participation

undercover/ group unaware they’re being observed

researcher takes part even if illegal

little control in what happens

researchers need to build a rapport w/o arousing suspicion

undertake a role where they take part but cannot influence groups behaviour

collect rich qual data but can be dangerous

eg a sociologist who wrote about hells angels received multiple death threats

covert non-participation observation

group are unaware they’re being observed

researcher stays on side liens and doesnt get involved

eg watching football fans in the stadium noting how they behave but not getting involved

can generate qual and quant

benefit of staying covert = reduces observer effect/ hawthorn effect like in a ofsted observation and a teacher changes how they behave