Period 1 APUSH Exam Review

Set includes SFI and Key Concepts for APUSH exam during period 1

Native American Civilizations

Indigenous peoples who lived in North America before European contact, developing complex societies with diverse cultures, languages, and ways of life. They had sophisticated agricultural practices, trade networks, and social structures. These civilizations were deeply connected to the land and had a profound impact on the environment. Cause and Effect: European contact led to devastating population losses due to disease and conflict. This resulted in significant changes to Native American societies and cultures. Significance: Understanding Native American civilizations is crucial for comprehending the pre-Columbian history of the Americas and the impact of European colonization. Context/Connection: The diversity and complexity of _ challenge the notion of the Americas as an empty wilderness, setting the stage for conflicts with European settlers.

Spanish Exploration and Colonization

The process by which Spain established control over vast territories in the Americas, beginning with Columbus's voyages in 1492. This period was marked by the conquest of indigenous empires, the establishment of colonial administrations, and the exploitation of natural resources. Cause and Effect: The desire for wealth, religious conversion, and territorial expansion drove Spanish exploration, resulting in the creation of a vast colonial empire. Significance: _ fundamentally altered the course of world history, initiating the Columbian Exchange and reshaping global power dynamics. Context/Connection: This era set the foundation for future European colonization efforts and had long-lasting impacts on the Americas' demographic, cultural, and economic landscapes.

Christopher Columbus

Italian explorer who sailed across the Atlantic Ocean in 1492, funded by the Spanish monarchy, in search of a western route to Asia. His voyages initiated European exploration and colonization of the Americas, though he mistakenly believed he had reached the East Indies. Cause and Effect: 's voyages led to the Columbian Exchange and the beginning of Spanish colonization in the Americas. Significance: His expeditions marked the start of sustained European contact with the Americas, profoundly impacting world history. Context/Connection: 's voyages bridged the Old and New Worlds, initiating a new era of global interconnectedness and cultural exchange.

Columbian Exchange

The widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and diseases between the Old and New Worlds following Columbus's voyages. This biological and cultural exchange had profound effects on both hemispheres. Cause and Effect: European exploration and colonization facilitated this exchange, leading to significant changes in diet, agriculture, and demographics worldwide. Significance: The _ dramatically altered ecosystems, agricultural practices, and populations on both sides of the Atlantic. Context/Connection: This exchange reshaped the world's biodiversity and had long-lasting impacts on global trade, cuisine, and disease patterns.

Black Legend

A historiographical phenomenon that emphasizes the cruelty and exploitation of Spanish colonizers in the Americas, often exaggerating or focusing solely on negative aspects of Spanish imperialism. This narrative was propagated by Spain's rivals to discredit Spanish colonial efforts. Cause and Effect: The arose from rival European powers' propaganda, leading to a skewed perception of Spanish colonization. Significance: It influenced how Spanish colonization was perceived and studied, often overshadowing the complexities of colonial interactions. Context/Connection: The highlights the role of propaganda in shaping historical narratives and international relations during the colonial era.

Bartolomé de Las Casas

A 16th-century Spanish historian, social reformer, and Dominican friar who became a fierce advocate for the rights of indigenous peoples in the Americas. He documented and criticized the atrocities committed by Spanish colonizers against Native Americans. Cause and Effect: 's advocacy led to reforms in Spanish colonial policies, including the New Laws of 1542 aimed at protecting indigenous peoples. Significance: His works were instrumental in sparking debates about the treatment of indigenous peoples and the ethics of colonization. Context/Connection: played a crucial role in the development of human rights concepts and critiques of colonialism.

Line of Demarcation

A boundary established by Pope Alexander VI in 1493 to divide the New World between Spain and Portugal. This imaginary line ran from pole to pole, about 100 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands. Cause and Effect: The was created to prevent conflict between Spain and Portugal, resulting in the division of South America. Significance: It played a crucial role in shaping the colonial territories of Spain and Portugal in the Americas. Context/Connection: The demonstrates the power of the Catholic Church in mediating international disputes during the Age of Exploration.

Treaty of Tordesillas

An agreement signed in 1494 between Spain and Portugal, moving the Line of Demarcation further west. This treaty effectively divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between the two kingdoms. Cause and Effect: The was a response to Portuguese dissatisfaction with the original Line of Demarcation, resulting in Portugal's claim to Brazil. Significance: It shaped the linguistic and cultural landscape of South America, with Brazil becoming a Portuguese-speaking country. Context/Connection: The illustrates how European powers negotiated the division of newly discovered territories during the Age of Exploration.

Aztecs

A Mesoamerican civilization that dominated central Mexico in the 14th, 15th, and early 16th centuries. They built a powerful empire with a complex social structure, advanced agriculture, and impressive architectural achievements. Cause and Effect: The arrival of Spanish conquistadors led to the fall of the Empire, dramatically altering the course of Mesoamerican history. Significance: The civilization's sophistication challenges Eurocentric views of pre-Columbian American societies. Context/Connection: The conquest of the _ Empire by Hernán Cortés in 1521 marked a pivotal moment in the Spanish colonization of the Americas.

Encomienda

A labor system established by the Spanish crown during the American colonization. It granted a colonist a specified number of native laborers for whom they were to take responsibility. Cause and Effect: The system was implemented to reward Spanish conquistadors and generate revenue, often resulting in the exploitation and abuse of indigenous peoples. Significance: It played a crucial role in the Spanish colonial economy and the subjugation of Native American populations. Context/Connection: The system's abuses led to criticism from reformers like Bartolomé de Las Casas and eventual reforms in colonial policies.

Mita

A labor system in the Spanish colonies, particularly in the Andes, where indigenous communities were required to send a certain number of workers for various projects, especially mining. This system was based on similar pre-Columbian Incan practices. Cause and Effect: The system allowed the Spanish to exploit rich silver deposits, but it often led to harsh working conditions and demographic decline in indigenous communities. Significance: It was crucial for the extraction of precious metals that fueled the Spanish economy and global trade. Context/Connection: The system demonstrates how colonial powers adapted and exploited pre-existing indigenous labor systems for their benefit.

Repartimiento

A Spanish colonial labor system that replaced the encomienda, involving the forced paid labor of indigenous people for a specified period. It was intended to be a more regulated and less abusive system than the encomienda. Cause and Effect: The was implemented in response to criticisms of the encomienda system, aiming to provide better conditions for indigenous workers. Significance: While intended as a reform, the often resulted in continued exploitation of indigenous labor. Context/Connection: The transition from encomienda to _ reflects attempts to reform colonial labor practices in response to humanitarian concerns and labor shortages.

Casta

A complex system of racial classification used in Spanish and Portuguese colonies in the Americas. It categorized people based on their racial origins and mixtures, influencing social status and legal rights. Cause and Effect: The system was developed to maintain social order and Spanish dominance, resulting in a highly stratified colonial society. Significance: It shaped social interactions, economic opportunities, and cultural identities in colonial Latin America. Context/Connection: The system's legacy continues to influence racial and social dynamics in many Latin American countries today.

Plantation Colonies

Agricultural settlements established by European powers in the Americas, primarily focused on producing cash crops for export. These colonies relied heavily on forced labor, including slavery. Cause and Effect: The demand for tropical products in Europe led to the establishment of , resulting in the large-scale importation of enslaved Africans. Significance: played a crucial role in the development of the Atlantic slave trade and the economic growth of European empires. Context/Connection: The economic model of _ shaped social structures and labor systems throughout the Americas, with lasting impacts on racial dynamics.

Brazil

The largest country in South America, colonized by Portugal in the 16th century. It became a major producer of sugar and later coffee, relying heavily on enslaved African labor. Cause and Effect: Portugal's colonization of led to extensive exploitation of natural resources and the establishment of a plantation economy. Significance: became the largest Portuguese colony and played a crucial role in the Atlantic slave trade. Context/Connection: The development of _ as a plantation colony contrasts with the settlement patterns in Spanish America and British North America.

Roanoke

An early English settlement attempt on an island off the coast of North Carolina, established in 1585. The colony mysteriously disappeared, becoming known as the 'Lost Colony.' Cause and Effect: The failure of led to increased caution in future English colonization efforts but did not deter further attempts. Significance: represents one of the first English attempts at permanent settlement in North America. Context/Connection: The mystery surrounding _ has captivated historians and the public, symbolizing the challenges of early colonization efforts.

Jamestown

The first permanent English settlement in North America, established in 1607 in present-day Virginia. Initially struggling for survival, it later became profitable through tobacco cultivation. Cause and Effect: The success of encouraged further English colonization in North America and established tobacco as a valuable cash crop. Significance: marked the beginning of permanent English presence in North America and laid the foundation for the future United States. Context/Connection: The experiences at _, including relations with Native Americans and the introduction of representative government, shaped future colonial development.

Joint-stock company

A business entity where investors pool their resources to fund a commercial venture, sharing in its profits and losses. These companies played a crucial role in financing early colonial expeditions. Cause and Effect: allowed for the distribution of risk in colonial ventures, encouraging more investors to support exploration and settlement. Significance: This business model facilitated the financing of costly colonial expeditions that individual investors or governments might not have undertaken alone. Context/Connection: like the Virginia Company were instrumental in establishing early English colonies in North America.

Virginia Company

A joint-stock company chartered by King James I in 1606 to establish colonial settlements in North America. It founded Jamestown and played a crucial role in early English colonization efforts. Cause and Effect: The financed and organized the Jamestown settlement, leading to the first permanent English colony in North America. Significance: It established a model for private investment in colonization and introduced elements of self-government in the colonies. Context/Connection: The 's efforts laid the groundwork for English colonial expansion and the development of representative government in North America.

John Smith

An English soldier, explorer, and author who played a crucial role in the establishment of Jamestown. He is known for his leadership during the colony's early years and his interactions with local Native Americans. Cause and Effect: 's leadership and pragmatic approach helped Jamestown survive its difficult early years, contributing to the colony's eventual success. Significance: His writings provided valuable accounts of early colonial life and Native American cultures. Context/Connection: 's relationship with Pocahontas became a significant part of American folklore, symbolizing early English-Native American interactions.

John Rolfe

An English settler in Jamestown who introduced a new strain of tobacco to Virginia, revolutionizing the colony's economy. He is also known for his marriage to Pocahontas. Cause and Effect: 's cultivation of tobacco transformed Jamestown into a profitable venture, ensuring the colony's survival and growth. Significance: His success with tobacco established it as the primary cash crop of the Chesapeake region, shaping its economic and social development. Context/Connection: 's marriage to Pocahontas temporarily improved relations between English settlers and the Powhatan Confederacy.

House of Burgesses

The first elected legislative assembly in the American colonies, established in Jamestown, Virginia, in 1619. It represented an early form of representative government in the colonies. Cause and Effect: The creation of the introduced elements of self-governance in the colonies, influencing future democratic developments. Significance: It set a precedent for representative government in the American colonies, contributing to the development of democratic traditions. Context/Connection: The foreshadowed the development of colonial legislatures and the concept of self-governance that would later influence the American Revolution.

Opechancanough

A powerful leader of the Powhatan Confederacy who organized major attacks on English settlements in Virginia in 1622 and 1644. He was the brother of Chief Powhatan and uncle to Pocahontas. Cause and Effect: 's attacks significantly disrupted English settlement in Virginia, leading to a more aggressive colonial policy towards Native Americans. Significance: His resistance efforts represent a crucial phase in early English-Native American relations and the struggle for control over Virginia. Context/Connection: 's actions highlight the complex and often violent nature of early colonial-indigenous interactions in North America.

Headright system

A method used by the Virginia Company to encourage immigration to the American colonies. It granted 50 acres of land to anyone who paid for their own or another's passage to the colony. Cause and Effect: The incentivized immigration to the colonies, leading to increased European settlement and the expansion of land ownership. Significance: It played a crucial role in populating the early English colonies and shaping patterns of land distribution. Context/Connection: The contributed to the development of a landed gentry in the southern colonies and the growth of the plantation system.

Plantation Life

The social and economic system centered around large agricultural estates in the American South, primarily producing cash crops like tobacco, rice, and cotton. This system relied heavily on slave labor and shaped Southern society. Cause and Effect: The development of led to the entrenchment of slavery and the creation of a distinct Southern culture and economy. Significance: profoundly influenced the social, economic, and political development of the American South. Context/Connection: The legacy of _ continued to impact race relations and economic structures in the South long after the abolition of slavery.

Freeholds

Land owned outright by individuals, free from feudal obligations. In colonial America, freeholds represented an important form of land ownership and a symbol of economic independence. Cause and Effect: The availability of in the colonies attracted settlers seeking economic opportunity and independence, contributing to colonial population growth. Significance: ownership was often linked to political rights, influencing the development of American concepts of citizenship and democracy. Context/Connection: The prevalence of _ in the colonies contrasted with European land ownership patterns, shaping unique American attitudes towards property and individual rights.

Cash crops - Virginia, Barbados/Brazil

Agricultural products grown primarily for sale rather than for use by the grower. In Virginia, tobacco became the dominant cash crop, while sugar was crucial in Barbados and Brazil. Cause and Effect: The cultivation of drove the economic development of these colonies, leading to increased demand for slave labor. Significance: These shaped the economic, social, and demographic patterns of their respective colonies. Context/Connection: The focus on _ in these regions illustrates how local conditions and market demands influenced colonial development across the Americas.

Indentured servitude

A labor system where an individual (the indentured servant) agreed to work for a fixed period in exchange for passage to the American colonies, room, board, and freedom dues. It was a significant source of labor in the early colonial period. Cause and Effect: provided a crucial workforce for colonial development, allowing many Europeans to migrate to the Americas. Significance: This system played a key role in populating the English colonies and shaping early American labor practices. Context/Connection: preceded and coexisted with slavery, influencing the development of labor systems and social hierarchies in colonial America.

Slavery

A system of forced labor where individuals are owned as property and deprived of personal freedom. In colonial America, slavery primarily involved the exploitation of African people and their descendants. Cause and Effect: The demand for labor in plantation colonies led to the expansion of , resulting in the forced migration of millions of Africans to the Americas. Significance: profoundly shaped the economic, social, and political landscape of colonial America and beyond. Context/Connection: The institution of _ created long-lasting racial hierarchies and tensions that continue to impact American society today.

Disease

Illnesses that spread among populations, often with devastating effects. In colonial America, diseases played a significant role in shaping demographics and interactions between different groups. Cause and Effect: The introduction of European diseases to the Americas led to widespread epidemics among Native American populations, dramatically reducing their numbers. Significance: outbreaks influenced patterns of settlement, labor systems, and power dynamics in the colonies. Context/Connection: The impact of on Native American populations facilitated European colonization and expansion across the Americas.

Social mobility

The ability of individuals or groups to move between different social classes or economic levels within a society. In colonial America, opportunities for varied depending on region, time period, and individual circumstances. Cause and Effect: The availability of land and economic opportunities in the colonies sometimes allowed for greater than in Europe, attracting immigrants seeking to improve their social status. Significance: The potential for in colonial America contributed to the development of distinct social and cultural patterns. Context/Connection: Varying degrees of in different colonial regions influenced the development of regional identities and social structures.

1492

The year Christopher Columbus first reached the Americas, marking the beginning of sustained European exploration and colonization of the New World. Cause and Effect: Columbus's voyages in led to the Columbian Exchange and initiated the Spanish colonization of the Americas. Significance: is considered a turning point in world history, connecting the Old and New Worlds. Context/Connection: The events of _ set in motion centuries of exploration, colonization, and cultural exchange between Europe and the Americas.

1607

The year the English established Jamestown, their first permanent settlement in North America, in present-day Virginia. Cause and Effect: The founding of Jamestown in led to the establishment of the Virginia colony and marked the beginning of permanent English presence in North America. Significance: represents the start of successful English colonization in the New World. Context/Connection: The experiences at Jamestown from _ onward shaped future English colonial efforts and relations with Native Americans.

1619

A significant year in early American history, marked by the arrival of the first enslaved Africans in English North America and the establishment of the House of Burgesses in Virginia. Cause and Effect: The events of laid the groundwork for both the system of slavery and representative government in the American colonies. Significance: marks the beginning of two contrasting traditions in American history: slavery and democratic representation. Context/Connection: The developments of _ had long-lasting impacts on the social, economic, and political landscape of colonial America and beyond.

New France

The French colonial empire in North America, established in the early 17th century and lasting until 1763. It included territories primarily along the St. Lawrence River, the Great Lakes, and the Mississippi River. Cause and Effect: French exploration and settlement led to the establishment of , resulting in complex relationships with Native American tribes and conflicts with other European powers. Significance: played a crucial role in the exploration of North America and the development of the fur trade. Context/Connection: The legacy of _ continues to influence the cultural and linguistic landscape of parts of Canada and the United States.

Jacques Cartier

A French explorer who made three voyages to North America between 1534 and 1542. He is credited with naming Canada and claiming the region for France. Cause and Effect: 's explorations led to French claims in North America, paving the way for future French colonization efforts. Significance: His voyages provided valuable information about the St. Lawrence River region and its indigenous inhabitants. Context/Connection: 's expeditions set the stage for later French exploration and settlement in North America, including the efforts of Samuel de Champlain.

Samuel de Champlain

A French explorer, cartographer, and colonizer who played a crucial role in establishing and administering New France in the early 17th century. He is often referred to as the 'Father of New France.' Cause and Effect: 's explorations and settlement efforts led to the founding of Quebec City in 1608, establishing a permanent French presence in North America. Significance: He played a key role in developing alliances with Native American tribes and promoting French colonization efforts. Context/Connection: 's work laid the foundation for French colonial expansion in North America and shaped early relations between Europeans and Native Americans in the region.

Fur trade

A commercial exchange system involving the trading of animal furs between Native Americans and European colonists. It was a primary economic activity in New France and other parts of North America. Cause and Effect: The demand for furs in Europe drove the expansion of the , leading to exploration of the interior of North America and complex relationships with Native American tribes. Significance: The was a crucial economic engine for New France and other colonies, shaping patterns of exploration, settlement, and indigenous relations. Context/Connection: The _ played a central role in the economic and social development of New France and other North American colonies.

Black Robes

A term used by Native Americans to refer to Jesuit missionaries in New France, due to their distinctive black cassocks. These missionaries played a significant role in French-Native American relations. Cause and Effect: The presence of in New France led to efforts to convert Native Americans to Christianity, influencing cultural exchanges and alliances. Significance: contributed to the spread of Christianity among Native American populations and served as intermediaries between French colonists and indigenous peoples. Context/Connection: The work of the _ reflects the intertwining of religious and colonial objectives in New France.

Farming

Agricultural activities carried out by settlers in New France, including the cultivation of crops and raising of livestock. Despite the emphasis on the fur trade, was essential for the colony's sustainability. Cause and Effect: The need for self-sufficiency led to the development of in New France, resulting in the establishment of permanent settlements along the St. Lawrence River. Significance: played a crucial role in supporting the permanent population of New France and reducing dependence on imports. Context/Connection: The challenges of in New France's climate influenced settlement patterns and relations with Native American tribes.

Huguenots

French Protestants who faced persecution in Catholic France during the 16th and 17th centuries. Some sought refuge in New France and other colonies. Cause and Effect: Religious conflicts in France led some to emigrate to the New World, contributing to the diversity of early colonial populations. Significance: brought valuable skills and knowledge to the colonies, often contributing to trade and craftsmanship. Context/Connection: The presence of in New France and other colonies reflects the complex religious dynamics of European colonization efforts.

New Netherland

Dutch colonial province in North America established in 1624, spanning parts of present-day New York, New Jersey, Connecticut, Delaware, and Pennsylvania. It was centered around the Hudson River and focused on the lucrative fur trade. Cause and Effect: The Dutch West India Company's desire to profit from the fur trade led to the establishment of , resulting in a diverse, multicultural society. Significance: introduced lasting Dutch influences in America, including place names, cultural practices, and a legacy of religious tolerance. Context/Connection: The colony's development contrasted with English settlements, offering a different model of colonization in early America.

Amsterdam

Capital city of the Netherlands and a major commercial center in the 17th century. It served as the headquarters for the Dutch West India Company, which managed New Netherland. Cause and Effect: 's economic power and maritime expertise enabled Dutch colonial expansion, leading to the establishment of New Netherland. Significance: The city's influence shaped the development of New Amsterdam (later New York City) as a diverse trading hub. Context/Connection: 's role in the Dutch Golden Age paralleled and competed with other European powers' colonial ambitions.

Henry Hudson

English explorer who, while employed by the Dutch East India Company in 1609, sailed up the river later named after him, laying the foundation for Dutch claims in North America. Cause and Effect: 's exploration of the Hudson River led to Dutch interest in the region, resulting in the establishment of New Netherland. Significance: His voyage opened up the area for Dutch colonization and fur trade with Native Americans. Context/Connection: 's explorations for both English and Dutch employers highlight the competitive nature of early colonial exploration.

West India Company

Dutch trading company chartered in 1621 to carry out economic activity in the Americas and West Africa. It played a crucial role in establishing and administering New Netherland. Cause and Effect: The creation of the led to organized Dutch colonization efforts in North America, resulting in the founding of New Netherland. Significance: The company's management shaped the economic and social development of the Dutch colonies in America. Context/Connection: The represented the Dutch approach to colonization through private enterprise, contrasting with other European colonial models.

Fur trade

Primary economic activity in New Netherland, involving the exchange of European goods for beaver pelts and other animal furs from Native Americans. Cause and Effect: The lucrative drove Dutch colonial expansion in North America, leading to extensive interactions with Native American tribes. Significance: It shaped the economy, settlement patterns, and Native American relations in New Netherland. Context/Connection: The in New Netherland competed with similar operations in New France and New England, influencing inter-colonial and Native American relations.

Algonquians and Iroquois

Two major Native American linguistic and cultural groups in northeastern North America, with whom Dutch colonists interacted extensively in New Netherland. Cause and Effect: Dutch trade relations with significantly influenced the fur trade and colonial expansion, leading to both alliances and conflicts. Significance: Interactions with these groups shaped Dutch colonial policies and the development of New Netherland. Context/Connection: Relations between Dutch colonists and were crucial to the fur trade and influenced broader Native American-European dynamics in North America.

Peter Stuyvesant

The last Director-General of New Netherland, serving from 1647 until the colony's surrender to the English in 1664. Known for his autocratic rule and attempts to resist English takeover. Cause and Effect: 's strict governance led to tensions with colonists and neighboring English settlements, ultimately contributing to New Netherland's vulnerability. Significance: His leadership marked the final phase of Dutch rule in North America and the transition to English control. Context/Connection: 's surrender of New Amsterdam to the English in 1664 marked a significant shift in colonial power dynamics in North America.

New England

Region in northeastern North America colonized primarily by English Puritans in the 17th century, comprising the colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, New Haven, and Rhode Island. Cause and Effect: Religious persecution in England led to Puritan migration to , resulting in the establishment of colonies with distinct religious and social characteristics. Significance: colonies played a crucial role in shaping early American religious, political, and social institutions. Context/Connection: The development of _ contrasted with other English colonies, particularly those in the Chesapeake region, due to its religious foundations.

Plymouth

The first permanent English settlement in New England, established in 1620 by the Pilgrims who arrived on the Mayflower. Cause and Effect: The Pilgrims' desire for religious freedom led to the founding of , which set a precedent for future Puritan settlements in New England. Significance: introduced key concepts of self-governance and religious autonomy in the English colonies. Context/Connection: The experiences of _ influenced the larger Puritan migration and the development of other New England colonies.

Pilgrims

English Separatists who founded Plymouth Colony in 1620, seeking religious freedom and separation from the Church of England. Cause and Effect: The ' quest for religious autonomy led to the establishment of Plymouth Colony, influencing future Puritan migrations. Significance: They introduced concepts of self-governance and religious freedom that would shape New England's development. Context/Connection: The ' experience at Plymouth set a precedent for later Puritan settlements and influenced American ideas about religious liberty.

Separatists

English Protestants who believed in complete separation from the Church of England, unlike other Puritans who sought to reform the church from within. Cause and Effect: The ' radical stance led to their persecution in England, ultimately resulting in their migration to Holland and then to Plymouth. Significance: Their beliefs influenced the religious and political character of Plymouth Colony and later New England settlements. Context/Connection: The represented a more extreme position within the broader Puritan movement, shaping early American religious diversity.

Mayflower Compact

Agreement signed in 1620 by male Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower, establishing a form of self-government for Plymouth Colony. Cause and Effect: The need for order in the new settlement led to the creation of the , resulting in one of the first examples of self-governance in the colonies. Significance: It set a precedent for written constitutions and the concept of government by consent of the governed in America. Context/Connection: The influenced later colonial governments and contributed to the development of American democratic principles.

Massachusetts Bay

Puritan colony established in 1630 north of Plymouth, which became the dominant settlement in New England. Cause and Effect: The desire for a Puritan "holy commonwealth" led to the founding of , resulting in a theocratic government and strict social order. Significance: became the center of Puritan culture in New England and significantly influenced the region's development. Context/Connection: The colony's religious and political model contrasted with other English settlements, shaping unique aspects of New England society.

Puritans

English Protestants who sought to "purify" the Church of England of Catholic influences, with many migrating to New England in the 17th century to establish their own religious communities. Cause and Effect: Religious persecution in England led to establish colonies in New England, resulting in societies deeply influenced by their religious beliefs. Significance: theology and practices profoundly shaped the social, political, and economic development of New England. Context/Connection: The _ influence in New England contrasted with the more secular motivations of other English colonies, contributing to regional differences in colonial America.

Congregationalists

Members of a Protestant Christian church governance model where each congregation independently and autonomously runs its own affairs. Cause and Effect: The model, adopted by many Puritans, led to decentralized church governance in New England, influencing both religious and civic organization. Significance: This system promoted local autonomy and laid the groundwork for democratic practices in New England towns. Context/Connection: The approach contrasted with hierarchical models in other colonies, contributing to New England's distinct political culture.

John Winthrop

Puritan lawyer and leader who served as governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. Famous for his "City upon a Hill" sermon. Cause and Effect: ____'s leadership shaped the religious and political character of Massachusetts Bay, resulting in a model Puritan society. Significance: His vision of a godly society influenced the development of New England's religious and civic culture. Context/Connection: ____'s "City upon a Hill" concept has remained influential in American political rhetoric and self-perception.

City Upon a Hill

Phrase from John Winthrop's 1630 sermon "A Model of Christian Charity," describing his vision for the Massachusetts Bay Colony as an example to the world. Cause and Effect: This concept motivated Puritans to create an ideal Christian community, resulting in strict moral and social codes in Massachusetts Bay. Significance: The _ idea has become a lasting metaphor for American exceptionalism and moral leadership. Context/Connection: This concept has been repeatedly invoked in American political discourse, shaping the nation's self-image and perceived global role.

Elect

In Puritan theology, those Predestined by God for salvation. The concept was central to Puritan religious and social life in New England. Cause and Effect: The belief in the led to anxiety about salvation among Puritans, resulting in intense self-examination and moral rigor. Significance: This doctrine influenced social hierarchy and political participation in Puritan New England. Context/Connection: The concept of the contributed to the development of a unique Puritan culture and work ethic in New England.

Predestination

Calvinist doctrine that God has foreordained who will be saved (the elect) and who will be damned. This belief was central to Puritan theology. Cause and Effect: The doctrine of led to intense spiritual introspection among Puritans, resulting in a culture of moral vigilance and self-discipline. Significance: This belief shaped Puritan social structures and attitudes toward work, success, and morality. Context/Connection: distinguished Puritan theology from other Christian denominations and influenced New England's distinct religious culture.

Roger Williams

Puritan minister who founded Rhode Island after being banished from Massachusetts Bay for his radical views on religious freedom and separation of church and state. Cause and Effect: 's disagreements with Puritan orthodoxy led to his expulsion from Massachusetts, resulting in the establishment of Rhode Island as a haven for religious dissenters. Significance: He pioneered ideas of religious tolerance and separation of church and state in colonial America. Context/Connection: 's ideas contrasted sharply with the theocratic model of other New England colonies, foreshadowing later American concepts of religious liberty.

Rhode Island

Colony founded by Roger Williams in 1636 as a haven for religious dissenters, known for its policies of religious tolerance and separation of church and state. Cause and Effect: The establishment of provided a refuge for those persecuted in other colonies, resulting in a diverse and relatively tolerant society. Significance: served as an early model of religious freedom in the colonies, influencing later American concepts of liberty. Context/Connection: The colony's policies contrasted sharply with the religious orthodoxy of other New England settlements, contributing to the diversity of colonial governance models.

Anne Hutchinson

Puritan midwife and spiritual adviser who was banished from Massachusetts Bay Colony for her antinomian beliefs and challenges to clerical authority. Cause and Effect: 's religious meetings and teachings led to the Antinomian Controversy, resulting in her trial and banishment from Massachusetts. Significance: Her case highlighted tensions within Puritan theology and the limits of dissent in early New England. Context/Connection: 's challenge to Puritan orthodoxy and male authority foreshadowed later movements for religious freedom and women's rights.

Covenant of works

In Puritan theology, the belief that salvation could be earned through faith and good deeds. This concept was challenged by Anne Hutchinson and others. Cause and Effect: The emphasis on the in Puritan preaching led to anxiety about salvation, contributing to religious controversies like the Antinomian Crisis. Significance: This doctrine shaped Puritan attitudes toward morality, work, and social behavior in New England. Context/Connection: Debates over the reflected broader tensions within Puritan theology and practice in the colonies.

Covenant of grace

Puritan theological concept emphasizing God's free gift of salvation to the elect, as opposed to salvation earned through good works. Cause and Effect: The emphasis on the by figures like Anne Hutchinson led to theological debates and social tensions in Puritan New England. Significance: This doctrine influenced Puritan understandings of salvation and shaped religious practices in the colonies. Context/Connection: The concept of was central to debates about predestination and free will in Puritan theology.

Covenant of works vs. Covenant of grace

Theological debate in Puritan New England over the nature of salvation, contrasting the idea of earning salvation through good works with receiving it as a free gift from God. Cause and Effect: This theological debate led to the Antinomian Controversy, resulting in social and political upheaval in Massachusetts Bay Colony. Significance: The conflict highlighted tensions within Puritan theology and the challenges of maintaining orthodoxy in the colonies. Context/Connection: This debate reflected broader religious controversies in Protestant theology and influenced the development of various Christian denominations in America.

War and Rebellion

Conflicts between English colonists and Native Americans in New England, including the Pequot War and King Philip's War, which significantly impacted colonial-indigenous relations. Cause and Effect: Tensions over land and cultural differences led to these conflicts, resulting in devastating losses for Native American populations and expanded English territorial control. Significance: These wars profoundly altered the balance of power in New England and shaped colonial attitudes toward Native Americans. Context/Connection: _ in New England were part of broader patterns of conflict between European colonists and indigenous peoples across North America.

Puritan-Pequot War

Conflict between English colonists and the Pequot tribe in New England from 1636 to 1638, resulting in the near destruction of the Pequot people. Cause and Effect: Tensions over trade and land led to the , resulting in the massacre of Pequot people and the tribe's effective destruction. Significance: This war established English dominance in southern New England and set a precedent for future colonial-indigenous conflicts. Context/Connection: The was one of the first major conflicts between English colonists and Native Americans, shaping future relations and colonial expansion patterns.

Indian War of 1622

Conflict in Virginia between English colonists and Powhatan Confederacy, led by Opechancanough, which resulted in significant losses for both sides. Cause and Effect: Growing tensions over land and resources led to the , resulting in heavy casualties and a shift in colonial-indigenous relations. Significance: This conflict marked a turning point in English-Powhatan relations and led to more aggressive colonial policies. Context/Connection: The foreshadowed later conflicts between colonists and Native Americans across North America, reflecting the broader pattern of colonial expansion and indigenous

KC-1.1
Native populations in North America developed complex societies by adapting to and transforming their environments over time.

SFI: Iroquois Confederacy, Pueblo culture, Mississippian culture Connection: The Iroquois Confederacy exemplified complex social structures, Pueblo culture demonstrated adaptation to arid environments, and Mississippian culture showcased advanced agricultural practices.

KC-1.1.I
Native societies adapted to their environments through innovations in agriculture, resource use, and social structure.

SFI: Three Sisters agriculture, Inuit hunting techniques, Aztec chinampas Connection: Three Sisters agriculture demonstrated resource efficiency, Inuit hunting techniques showed adaptation to Arctic environments, and Aztec chinampas exemplified innovative agricultural practices.

KC-1.2
The Columbian Exchange resulted from contact among Europeans, Native Americans, and Africans, leading to significant changes on both sides of the Atlantic.

SFI: Smallpox, horses, potatoes Connection: Smallpox devastated Native American populations, horses transformed Plains Indian cultures, and potatoes became a staple crop in Europe.

KC-1.2.I
European expansion into the Western Hemisphere led to intense social, religious, political, and economic changes within European societies.

SFI: Protestant Reformation, rise of joint-stock companies, Spanish Inquisition Connection: The Protestant Reformation was partly fueled by New World wealth, joint-stock companies facilitated colonial ventures, and the Spanish Inquisition expanded to the Americas.

KC-1.2.II
The Columbian Exchange and Spanish Empire development in the Western Hemisphere caused extensive demographic, economic, and social changes.

SFI: African slave trade, silver mining, encomienda system Connection: The African slave trade altered demographics in the Americas, silver mining boosted European economies, and the encomienda system restructured Native American societies.

KC-1.2.III
Europeans and Native Americans held divergent worldviews on issues such as religion, gender roles, family, land use, and power.

SFI: Missionary activities, matrilineal vs. patriarchal societies, concept of land ownership Connection: Missionary activities clashed with Native American spiritual beliefs, matrilineal Native societies contrasted with European patriarchal norms, and European concepts of land ownership conflicted with Native communal land use.