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cognitive psychology
The branch of psychology that focuses on such mental processes as thinking, problem solving, decision making, and use of language.
thinking
The process of mentally representing and manipulating information.
mental image
A mental picture or representation of an object or event.
concepts
Mental categories for classifying events, objects, and ideas on the basis of their common features or properties.
Logical concepts
Concepts with clearly defined rules for membership.
natural concepts
Concepts with poorly defined or fuzzy rules for membership.
Problem solving
A form of thinking focused on finding a solution to a particular problem.
algorithm
A step-by-step set of rules that will always lead to a correct solution to a problem.
heuristic
A rule of thumb for solving problems or making judgments or decisions.
mental set
The tendency to rely on strategies that worked in similar situations in the past but that may not be appropriate to the present situation.
functional fixedness
The tendency to perceive objects as limited to the customary functions they serve.
Decision making
A form of problem solving in which we must select a course of action from among the available alternatives.
confirmation bias
The tendency to maintain allegiance to an initial hypothesis despite strong evidence to the contrary.
representativeness heuristic
A rule of thumb for making a judgment that assumes a given sample is representative of the larger population from which it is drawn.
availability heuristic
The tendency to judge events as more likely to occur when information pertaining to them comes readily to mind.
Creativity
Originality of thought associated with the development of new, workable products or solutions to problems.
Divergent thinking
The ability to conceive of new ways of viewing situations and new uses for familiar objects.
convergent thinking
The attempt to narrow down a range of alternatives to converge on the one correct answer to a problem.
conceptual combinations
Combinations of two or more concepts into one concept, resulting in the creation of a novel idea or application.
conceptual expansion
expanding familiar concepts by applying them to new uses
Brainstorming
A method of promoting divergent thinking by encouraging people to propose as many solutions to a problem as possible without fear of being judged negatively by others, no matter how far-fetched their proposals may be.
language
A system of communication composed of symbols (words, hand signs, and so on) that are arranged according to a set of rules (grammar) to form meaningful expressions.
grammar
The set of rules governing how symbols in a given language are used to form meaningful expressions.
phonemes
The basic units of sound in a language.
morphemes
The smallest units of meaning in a language.
syntax
The rules of grammar that determine how words are ordered within sentences or phrases to form meaningful expressions.
semantics
The set of rules governing the meaning of words.
language acquisition device
Chomsky’s concept of an innate, prewired mechanism in the brain that allows children to acquire language naturally.
linguistic relativity hypothesis
The proposition that the language we use determines how we think and how we perceive the world (also called the Whorfian hypothesis).
intelligence
The capacity to think and reason clearly and to act purposefully and effectively in adapting to the environment and pursuing one’s goals.
mental age
A representation of a person’s intelligence based on the age of people who are capable of performing at the same level of ability.
intelligence quotient (IQ)
A measure of intelligence based on performance on tests of mental abilities, expressed as a ratio between one’s mental age and chronological age or derived from the deviation of one’s scores from the norms for those of one’s age group.
norms
The standards used to compare an individual’s performance on a test with the performance of others.
Standardization
The process of establishing norms for a test by administering the test to large numbers of people who constitute a standardization sample.
Reliability
The stability of test scores over time.
Validity
The degree to which a test measures what it purports to measure.
culture-fair tests
Tests designed to eliminate cultural biases.
dyslexia
A learning disorder characterized by impaired ability to read.
intellectual disability
A generalized deficit or impairment in intellectual and social skills.
mainstreaming
The practice of placing children with special needs in a regular classroom environment.
primary mental abilities
Seven basic mental abilities that Thurstone believed constitute intelligence.
multiple intelligences
Gardner’s term for the distinct types of intelligence that characterize different forms of intelligent behavior.
triarchic theory of intelligence
Sternberg’s theory of intelligence that posits three aspects of intelligence: analytic, creative, and practical.
heritability
The degree to which heredity accounts for variations on a given trait within a population.
When thinking about your drive to school or work, you imagine several different routes and determine the best one to use. Which term best describes the representation you have in your mind?
Mental image
Natural concept
Students in a class are arguing about whether a story in the news demonstrates principles of justice. One reason for their argument is that justice is an example of which term?
Natural concept
When trying to solve a problem for math class, you check the answer solution and then try to determine how to get there. Which term best describes this strategy?
Backward-working heuristic
Your table in a restaurant is a bit wobbly. Instead of moving to a new table, you fold up a napkin and stuff it under a table leg to stabilize the table. Which term would have prevented you from solving the problem?
Functional fixedness
A student excels in coming up with many ways of viewing situations. This student demonstrates which term?
Divergent thinking
When approaching a problem, a creative problem solver might ask, “What hasn’t worked? What can I do differently?” Which step does this exemplify?
Adopt a questioning attitude.
The word “cat” has three distinct sounds. What is the term for these basic components?
Phonemes
The sentence “Go me up” violates certain rules of the English language. What is the term for these rules?
Syntax
Children in China, Germany, Brazil, and Canada all have a similar path in their language development. According to Noam Chomsky, what does this suggest regarding the role of nature?
Language development may depend on the language acquisition device.
If we did not have a word for “angry” in our language, would we still feel this emotion? According to Benjamin Whorf, what does this suggest regarding the role of nurture?
The language we use determines how we think and how we perceive reality.
What is the term for the capacity to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment?
Intelligence
Which intelligence test is commonly used to measure intelligence, originally by posing mental tasks that children of different ages were capable of performing?
Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale
Researchers are attempting to create a new test to measure intelligence. They have participants complete the test on Monday morning. A month later, the participants complete the test again, but this time on a Thursday afternoon. The researchers compare their scores, hoping that they are similar regardless of when they take the test. What term describes what the researchers are assessing?
Reliability
What IQ scores are typically associated with giftedness?
130 or above
Which theorist described intelligence as having analytic, creative, and practical components?
Robert Sternberg
Considering that Gardner is opposed to the use of testing to measure intelligence, how does this impact the idea of multiple intelligences?
There should be a clear manner in which to measure multiple intelligences in order to prove the theory of multiple intelligences.
Bordel’s goal was to determine which intelligence test measured multiple intelligences across cultures and languages. The fact that only one test was able to do this could imply which of the following?
Intelligence tests may be culturally biased.
Which type of thinking do you think would be most useful when it comes to advancing scientific understanding?
Divergent
Based on what you know about convergent thinking, why would convergent thinking be associated with low levels of risk taking?
Convergent thinkers would be less likely to try new things because they are less likely to search for alternatives.
Based on both of these studies, how is divergent thinking related to low risk taking?
It isn’t. Neither study found a relationship between low levels of risk taking and divergent thinking.
Based on what you know about creativity, how might it be related to risk taking?
It could be expected that a higher likelihood of engaging in risk taking behavior may be related to increased levels of creativity.
Which process do we use to represent and manipulate information in our mind?
thinking
Polani was giving Ahmed directions to her house. She told him to turn right at the gas station, and then go straight for three lights. He was then supposed to turn left at the fast-food restaurant. What is Polani using to help Ahmed recall the directions to her house?
Mental Images
Four-year-old Jewel thinks that all grown-ups are mommies or daddies. What has Jewel used to classify adults in this way?
Logical concepts
Montazar's professor announced that each student would be doing a large research project over the course of the semester. Expectations were explained, and students were told to begin their research. Montazar was a bit overwhelmed at how to organize the project, so he broke the project into a series of small and manageable steps. What type of heuristic did Montazar use to work through this problem?
Creating subgoals
Which of the following describes functional fixedness?
The inability to see new uses for familiar objects
During a group project, Kamiya fought hard to get the group to agree with her ideas. After a few days, it was clear her ideas were not going to work, but Kamiya continued to maintain her feelings that her ideas were most effective. Which of the following decision-making error is Kamiya displaying?
Confirmation bias
When taking her exam, Nour considered each answer choice and tried to narrow down each alternative until she was able to settle on the one correct answer to each question. Which type of thought process was Nour using on her exam?
Convergent thinking
What is the most basic unit of sound in a spoken language?
Phonemes
According to language acquisition guidelines, when are children able to use complex speech to communicate?
24 to 36 months
Which theory of language holds that the language we use determines how we think and perceive reality?
Whorfian hypothesis
Our ability to adapt to the environment is a core feature of _____.
intelligence
Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon developed an intelligence test to determine when a child's performance was at its peak. Which of the following was established by understanding when performance peaked?
Mental age
Which of the following is used to establish the norms for a test?
Standardization
When applying to college, Julius took the SAT. How do colleges use scores on the SAT?
To predict future behavior or performance
Which of the following is a characterized by significant deficiencies in cognitive and adaptive functioning?
Intellectual disability
Erin could not read well, although she tested as being in the normal intelligence range for her age. Even though her teacher worked with her during lunch breaks, Erin continued to experience difficulties in her reading. What could this difficulty be attributed to?
Dyslexia
Gardner's model of multiple intelligence claims that there are different types of intelligence that vary from person to person. What did he identify as the relationship between these different types of intelligence?
Each type of intelligence is independent of another
According to the triarchic theory of intelligence, those who can solve problems in new ways and solve unfamiliar problems have _____.
creative intelligence
Miquel has always been considered to be very bright and could always come up with practical common-sense solutions to problems, even though he scored in the lower range of average on intelligence tests. Which of the following best explains Miquel's ability to problem solve even with low test scores?
Practical intelligence
Aviva wants to be an architect and is very good at drawing and understanding proportions. Which of Gardner's intelligences would she be considered to have a high level ?
Spatial
process of representing and manipulating information in one's mind
thinking
concept with clearly defined rules for membership
logical concept
concept with poorly defined or fuzzy rules for membership
natural concept
form of thinking focused on finding a solution to a particular problem
problem solving
step-by-step set of rules that will always lead to a correct solution to a problem
algorithm
tendency to rely on strategies that worked in similar situations in the past
mental set
tendency to perceive objects as limited to the customary functions they serve
functional fixedness
form of problem solving where a course of action is selected from available alternatives
decision making
tendency to maintain allegiance to an initial hypothesis despite strong evidence to the contrary
confirmation bias
making a judgment that assumes a given sample is representative of the larger population
representativeness heuristic
judging events as more likely to occur when information pertaining to them is easily remembered
availability heuristic
originality of thought associated with the development of new, workable products or solutions to problems
creativity
ability to conceive of new ways of viewing situations and new uses for familiar objects
divergent thinking
attempt to narrow down a range of alternatives to the correct answer to a problem
convergent thinking
combinations of concepts into one concept, resulting in the creation of a novel idea
conceptual combinations
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