Psych Unit 3

Perception

The process of organizing and interpreting sensory information to give it meaning

Bottom-up processing

Analysis that begins with sensory receptors and works up to the brain's integration of sensory information, starting with small details and building up to a complete perception

Top-down processing

Information processing guided by higher-level mental processes such as expectations and prior knowledge, involving interpretation based on larger context

Schema

A mental framework that helps organize and interpret information based on past experiences and knowledge

Perceptual Set

A mental predisposition to perceive one thing and not another based on expectations, context, or emotions

Gestalt Psychology

The study of how people perceive whole objects or figures rather than just a collection of parts, emphasizing that the whole is different from the sum of its parts

Closure

A Gestalt law of grouping where we fill in gaps to create a complete, whole object

Figure and ground

The organization of the visual field into objects (figures) that stand out from their surroundings (ground)

Proximity

A Gestalt law of grouping that states we group nearby figures together

Similarity

A Gestalt law of grouping that states when things appear similar, we group them together

Attention

The process of focusing awareness on specific stimuli while filtering out others

Selective attention

The process of focusing on a specific aspect of information while ignoring others

Cocktail party effect

Our ability to focus on a single conversation in a noisy environment while tuning out other stimuli

Inattentional blindness

Failure to notice an unexpected stimulus in one's visual field when attention is focused on something else

Change blindness

Failure to notice large changes in one's environment when the change occurs simultaneously with a visual disruption

Binocular depth cues

Visual information that requires both eyes to perceive depth and distance

Retinal disparity

When each eye sees a slightly different picture because of their separate positions on our face, helping us perceive depth

Convergence

When our eyes move inward toward each other to focus on a close object, helping us understand how near something is

Monocular depth cues

Visual indicators of distance and space that can be perceived using just one eye

Relative clarity

A depth cue where objects that are clearer and more detailed are perceived as closer, while hazier objects seem farther away

Relative size

A visual cue where objects closer to us appear larger, while objects further away appear smaller

Texture gradient

The way we perceive texture to become denser and finer as it recedes into the distance

Linear perspective

A depth cue where parallel lines appear to converge as they recede into the distance

Interposition

When one object overlaps another, leading us to perceive the overlapping object as closer

Perceptual constancies

Our brain's ability to see objects as unchanging even when the image on our retina changes

Apparent movement

The perception of motion when there isn't any actual movement, such as in animations or movies

Explicit memory

Retention of facts and experiences from long-term memory that one can consciously know and declare

Episodic memory

Type of explicit memory that involves the recollection of personal experiences and specific events with the what, where, and when

Semantic memory

Type of explicit memory that involves the recall of general facts and knowledge about the world independent of personal experience

Implicit memory

Retention of learned skills or classically conditioned associations in long-term memory independent of conscious recollection

Procedural memory

Type of implicit memory that involves the recall of how to perform tasks or skills automatically

Prospective memory

Remembering to perform a planned action or recall a planned intention at some future point

Long-term potentiation

Long-lasting increase in signal transmission between neurons that results from their simultaneous activation, considered a major cellular mechanism underlying learning and memory

Working memory model

Baddeley's model describing a system in your brain that allows you to temporarily retain and manipulate stored information involved in complex processes

Working memory

Form of short-term memory used for temporarily holding and manipulating information, combining short-term and long-term memories

Central executive

The control center of working memory that manages attention, coordinates other memory components, and integrates information

Phonological loop

Component of working memory responsible for processing and storing verbal and auditory information through temporary holding and rehearsal

Visuospatial sketchpad

Component of working memory that handles visual and spatial information for tasks like navigation and geometry

Multi-store model

Describes memory as a three-part system that includes sensory memory, short-term memory, and long-term memory

Sensory memory

The initial stage of memory where sensory information is stored for a very brief period, acting as a buffer for stimuli received through the senses

Iconic memory

Type of sensory memory that briefly holds visual images for a fraction of a second before it fades

Echoic memory

Type of sensory memory that retains auditory information for about 3-4 seconds

Short-term memory

Temporarily holds a small amount of information, typically for about 15 to 30 seconds, with limited capacity

Long-term memory

The stage of memory where information is stored indefinitely with virtually unlimited capacity

Automatic processing

The unconscious encoding of information about space, time, frequency, and well-learned tasks without deliberate attention

Effortful processing

Type of memory encoding that requires active work and attention to embed information into long-term memory

Encoding

The first stage of memory where perceived information is transformed into a format that can be processed and stored in the brain

Storage

The process of retaining information in the brain over time

Retrieval

The process of accessing and bringing stored information back into conscious awareness

Levels of processing model

Proposes that the depth at which information is thought about affects how well it is remembered

Shallow encoding

A basic level of processing that focuses on surface characteristics of information without engaging with its meaning

Deep encoding

Involves thoroughly processing information by focusing on its meaning and connecting it to existing knowledge

Structural

Type of shallow processing that focuses on the physical structure of information

Phonemic

Shallow processing that focuses on the auditory aspects of information

Semantic

Deep processing that focuses on word meaning and connecting information to existing knowledge

Mnemonic devices

Techniques used to improve memory by associating information with simple cues like patterns, vivid images, or rhymes

Method of loci

Mnemonic technique that involves associating items to be remembered with specific physical locations

Chunking-grouping

Memory strategy that involves grouping individual pieces of information into larger, meaningful units

Categories-grouping

Method of organizing information by grouping related items together into categories

Hierarchies-grouping

Organizing information into a system of ranked categories or levels

Spacing effect

The phenomenon where learning is more effective when study sessions are spaced out over time rather than crammed into one session

Memory consolidation

The process of solidifying new information in long-term memory, especially enhanced by sleep

Massed practice

Cramming learning strategy where content is studied intensively over a short period without breaks

Distributed practice

Spacing the study of material to be remembered by including breaks between study periods

Serial position effect

The tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than those in the middle

Primacy effect

Cognitive phenomenon where individuals tend to remember items presented at the beginning of a list better than those that follow

Recency effect

Phenomenon where the most recently presented items in a list are recalled more clearly and accurately than items in the middle

Maintenance rehearsal

Learning technique that involves repeatedly reviewing information to keep it in short-term memory

Elaborative rehearsal

Memory technique that involves deep processing of information by adding meaning or connecting it to existing knowledge

Memory retention

The ability to retain and recall information over time

Autobiographical memory

Type of memory that encompasses events and experiences from an individual's own life, combining episodic and semantic memory

Retrograde amnesia

Memory disorder that involves the loss of memories formed before the onset of amnesia

Anterograde amnesia

Memory disorder characterized by an inability to form new memories following the onset of amnesia

Alzheimer's disease

Progressive neurological disorder that leads to memory loss, cognitive decline, and behavioral changes

Infantile amnesia

The phenomenon where people cannot recall personal memories from the early years of life, typically before age 3-4

Recall

Type of memory retrieval that involves accessing information without the aid of cues

Recognition

Type of memory retrieval that involves identifying information when it is presented

Retrieval cues

Stimuli that help bring previously learned information to mind

Context-dependent memory

When you remember information better in the same environment where you first learned it

Mood-congruent memory

The tendency to recall information that is consistent with one's current mood

State-dependent memory

The phenomenon where memory retrieval is most effective when an individual is in the same state of consciousness as when the memory was formed

Testing effect

The phenomenon where long-term memory is enhanced when some of the learning period is devoted to retrieving information through testing

Metacognition

The awareness and understanding of one's own thought processes, especially in relation to learning and memory

The forgetting curve

Graphical representation of the rate at which memory fades over time, showing fastest loss soon after learning

Encoding failure

Occurs when information does not enter long-term memory due to inadequate processing at the time of encoding

Proactive interference

Occurs when older memories inhibit the ability to learn and remember new information

Retroactive interference

Occurs when new learning impairs the recall of previously encoded information

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon

Common memory experience where an individual feels confident they know a word or name but cannot immediately recall it

Repression

Distressing thoughts and memories are unconsciously blocked from entering conscious awareness to protect from psychological distress

Misinformation effect

Happens when new, incorrect information influences how we remember past events

Source amnesia

The inability to remember where, when, or how previously learned information has been acquired while retaining the factual knowledge

Constructive memory

The process by which memories are not merely retrieved but actively constructed and can be influenced by prior knowledge and beliefs

Imagination inflation

When imagining an event that never occurred can increase confidence that it did occur

Prototypes

A mental image or best example of a category that aids in recognizing and categorizing objects or concepts

Schemas

Cognitive frameworks or blueprints that help organize and interpret information based on past experiences and knowledge

Assimilation

The cognitive process of fitting new information into existing schemas

Accommodation

The cognitive process of modifying existing schemas or creating new ones in response to new information

Algorithms

Step-by-step procedures or formulas for solving problems that guarantee a correct solution

Heuristics

Mental shortcuts or rules of thumb that simplify decision-making by reducing cognitive burden

Representativeness heuristic

Cognitive shortcut wherein individuals make judgments about the probability of an event based on how much it resembles existing stereotypes