AQA A-Level Religious Studies - Natural Moral Law

Define deontological. (NML can now be defined as such)

Comes from the Greek 'deon' - meaning 'obligation'.
The approach in ethics in which the rightness or wrongness of an act is judged by its conformity to duties, rules and obligations.

Who developed NML and in what writings?

Aquinas, in Summa Theologica.

Summarise in brief what NML argues.

There are rights and moral values that can be understood from human nature and which can be deduced by human reason. Humans have a district ability to reason and through this reason can humans discover the end or telos of human life.

Who did Aquinas' ideas about NML originate from?

Aristotle. Aquinas married Aristotles' ideas about human telos being happiness and paired them with a Christian view that humans' end goal is union with God.

State the four divisions of law.

• Eternal law
• Divine law
• Human law
• Natural law

Explain eternal law.

God's blueprint for the natural and moral order of things. Humans must live a life based on this order which is absolutist and applies to all - there are no exceptions.

Explain divine law.

The principles of the natural and moral order that are revealed to humans through God's special revelation in the Bible and the teachings of the Catholic Church. Truths are discoverable through God's grace.

Explain natural moral law.

God's eternal law that is revealed to humans through nature and interpreted by reason. It does not require a belief in God.

Explain human law.

The systems of law that are built up by human societies on the basis of natural law. It must not contradict NML.

What is the 'main guiding principle' in NML? Give a quote to support.

'Good is to be done and pursued and evil is to be avoided'.

What is a primary precept?

The fundamental goods of which all humans are disposed and are always, absolutely true.

State the primary precept which humans share with all created entities.

The drive for the preservation of life.

State the 2 primary precepts which humans share with all other animals.

• the drive to reproduce
• the drive to educate/care for offspring

State the 2 primary precepts which humans have uniquely.

• the drive to know the truth about God (to worship him)
• the drive to live in an ordered society

Are the primary precepts deontological or teleological?

Teleological. They are concerned with our end goal or purpose (telos)

What did Aquinas believe to be humans' end goal (telos)?

Happiness- human flourishing/eudaimonia. Unique from an individual- based on natural abilities. Following the primary precepts would be key to achieving this happiness.

What did Aquinas believe to be humanity's telos?

The beatific vision of God. Union with God in the next life.

What are secondary precepts?

Rules that derive from primary precepts and given how to act in specific situations.

What is the distinction between an efficient cause (telos) and a final cause (telos)?

• efficient cause: facts/descriptions
• final cause: intentions/telos towards what gets done
  = Whatever promotes the final cause is right

Give an example of a secondary precept for:

• preservation of life
• reproduction

1). Abortion - stops the growth of the foetus/ does not preserve innocent life
2). Masturbation- stops final cause - cannot reproduce through masturbation

Does Aquinas allow some flexibility with the SP? Give a quote.

• cultural relativism: e.g. polygamy may be accepted as natural in some countries- but Aquinas disagrees.
• the closer we get to the actual circumstances of a situation, the more variation there will be
• 'It may be changed in some particular cases of rare occurrence.'

Explain the difference between real and apparent goods.

Despite the desire to do good. Humans can sometimes fall short of God's intentions for them. This is because humans can confuse real and apparent goods. A real good is seen through exercising good moral virtues.

Explain interior and exterior acts.

Exterior acts like giving money to charity, must be accompanied by good interior intentions.

Give Aquinas' cardinal virtues that form the foundations of natural morality. How do they help humans? How can humans attain them?

• prudence
• justice
• courage
• temperance
  They help humans achieve their telos.
  They can be attained through human abilities.

Give Aquinas' three theological virtues. How can humans attain them?

• faith - belief in God
• hope - hope of heaven and beatific vision
• love - love God and your neighbour above all things
  They can be attained through God's grace.

What is the principle of the double effect?

It helps humans avoid moral mistakes. a set of criteria.

Give the 4 criteria to the double effect.

1). Nature of the act condition - action must be morally good
2). Means-end condition - bad effect must not be met with the good effect achieved
3). Right intention - the intention must only be to achieve a good effect (bad effect must only be unintended side-effect)
4). Proportionality condition - good effect must be equivalent in importance to bad effect

What example does Aquinas give in relation to the principle?

'Whether it is lawful to kill a man in self-defence?'

What does Aquinas conclude from this example?

• killing in self-defence is justified, so long as the killing was not intended but an unavoidable result of the force needed to save one's life
• there are two effects: the good effect of saving one's life and the bad effect of killing the assassin
• the killing must be proportional: if the victim utilises an unnecessary amount of violence, the attack is unlawful

An example, 'the case of a terminally ill patient whose death is brought about sooner through doctors administering increasing doses of morphine to control his pain' justified using the doctrine of the double effect?

1). It is a good act intrinsically - administering morphine relieves pain.
2). The bad effect of the patient dying is not the means by which the good effect of relieving pain is achieved.
3). The doctor's intention is only to relieve the pain of the patient. The fact that the sufferer dies sooner is an unintended side effect. The patient's death is foreseen but not intended.
4). The good effect of the relief of pain over a period of time is at least equivalent in importance to the bad effect that the patient dies sooner.

What did Aquinas believe about telling lies in order to save a life?

Aquinas believed it is not lawful to lie to save a life - in any circumstance. This is a problematic view as saving a life more often than not involves telling a lie. Would it be lawful to withhold information or is that too telling a lie?

Summarise NML today.

• remains Thomist (same view as Aquinas)
• Catholic Church gives greater importance to moral rules, unlike Aquinas who equally valued virtues

How did the Catholic Church make NML deontological?

• obligations are given priority
• in the 17th century, Manualism took place which involved writing manuals of moral theology to be used by priests in training
• Manualists interpreted NML much more rigidly than Aquinas, so shift to a deontological focus
• less focus on virtues

Is there evidence to say the current interpretation of NML is becoming more flexible?

• In recent decades, a renewal of interest in Aristotle's virtue ethics
• It serves as a reminder to root in virtues
• increased acceptance of proportionalism