Chapter 10 - Emotional Development (Part 1)

What are emotions?

Changes in one's neural activity, physiological state, subjective experience, expressions reflecting one's internal experience, thoughts, motivations, and actions

What part of the brain detects a threat during an emotional response?

The brain rapidly detects a threat through neural activity in regions like the amygdala, hypothalamus, and hindbrain

Which brain regions show increased activity when experiencing emotion?

The amygdala, hypothalamus, and hindbrain all show increased activity

Why is the amygdala important in emotional processing?

The amygdala helps detect threats and triggers emotional and physiological responses such as fear

What physiological changes occur in the body when an emotion like fear is triggered?

Heart rate increases, pupils dilate, and hormones are released to prepare muscles for action

How do hormones contribute to the body’s emotional response?

Hormones mobilize muscles and energy stores, preparing the body for “fight or flight.”

Why do pupils dilate and heart rate increase during strong emotions?

These changes enhance sensory awareness and deliver more oxygen to muscles, preparing for quick action

What are common facial expressions associated with fear?

Eyebrows raise, eyes widen, and the mouth opens into an “O” shape

How does emotional expression help communicate feelings to others?

Facial and body expressions signal emotional states to others, aiding social communication and survival

Why might emotional expressions have evolved as part of human behavior?

They help humans quickly communicate danger or intent, strengthening group survival

What does “subjective feeling” refer to in the context of emotion?

It refers to the personal, internal experience of an emotion, such as feeling fear or dread

How might the subjective feeling of fear be described?

As a sense of dread or terror that accompanies physiological and cognitive changes

Why is subjective experience an important part of defining emotion?

It captures how emotions are consciously felt, distinguishing one emotion from another (e.g., fear vs. anger)

What actions might fear motivate a person to take?

Fear often motivates immediate flight, such as running away from danger

How does emotion influence rapid decision-making?

Emotions like fear trigger fast information processing and scanning for escape routes or safety

How do emotions like fear guide attention and behavior in threatening situations?

They focus attention on the source of danger and prepare the body to act for self-preservation

What is the relationship between emotions and thinking?

The relationship between emotions and thinking goes both ways

When do emotions come first?

Sometimes emotions come first

When do thoughts come first?

Other times thoughts come first

What can the interaction between emotions and thoughts lead to?

It can lead to a vicious cycle

Why is emotion regulation important?

Emotion regulation is important to prevent this vicious cycle

According to discrete emotion theory, what are basic emotions and their expressions considered to be?

Innate products of evolution

How are basic emotions expressed across different cultures?

They are felt and expressed across all cultures

When are basic emotions evident in life?

They are evident early in life, even in infancy

What does each basic emotion have according to discrete emotion theory?

A psychobiological basis

What kind of neural activity is associated with each basic emotion?

Each has unique patterns of neural activation and involves different brain structures

Who did Ekman work with to study emotional expression?

The Fore people of New Guinea

What was significant about the Fore people's contact with western culture or media?

They had little to no contact with western culture or media

What did Ekman find about the Fore people's emotional expressions?

They showed the same emotional expressions and interpretations as people from other cultures

What is the expression of happiness?

Smiling (open or closed mouth), raised cheeks, and squinting eyes with crow’s feet at the corners

What is the function of happiness?

It is a response to something good

How does happiness help us survive and thrive?

It encourages behaviors that are good for us, such as achieving goals, forming social bonds, and eating highly caloric foods

How do the challenges we face today compare to those from early human evolution?

The challenges we face in the modern world aren’t the same as those we faced in our early evolution as a species

When do the first signs of happiness appear in infants?

In the first months, infants smile during REM sleep

Around what age do infants smile reflexively when being stroked?

Around 1 month old

When do infants begin to smile in response to a wider range of stimuli?

Between 3 and 8 weeks

What kinds of stimuli cause smiling between 3 and 8 weeks?

Novelty, affection, and social interactions (social smiling)

By what age does familiarity influence smiling behavior?

By 7 to 8 months, infants smile more at familiar people such as parents and caregivers

By age 1, what can infants find pleasure or humor in?

Silly noises, words, appearances, and behaviors

What is the facial expression of fear?

Mouth open or closed, corners pulled back into a grimace, eyes wide open, and middle brow raised

What is the main function of fear?

To keep us away from danger

What types of stimuli or situations have humans evolved to fear?

Specific stimuli or situations such as poisonous animals, dangerous events, and embarrassment in front of large groups

Besides protecting ourselves, what social function does fear serve?

It signals to other people that they should also be afraid

Is there firm evidence of fear in the first few months of life?

No, there is little firm evidence of fear in the first few months

Why is fear limited in early infancy?

Because sensory systems are still developing and infants have a limited ability to detect threats

Why do infants have little need to express fear early on?

They are constantly cared for by others, so caregivers handle potential threats

Who provides protection that reduces an infant’s need to express fear?

Caregivers

Around what age does fear first emerge in infants?

Around 7 or 8 months

What is the fear directed toward strangers called?

Stranger anxiety

Until what age does stranger anxiety typically intensify?

Until the second birthday

What adaptive purpose does stranger anxiety serve?

It helps infants avoid potentially dangerous people

What is separation anxiety?

Distress that occurs when one is, or expects to be, separated from one’s caregiver

Between what ages does separation anxiety increase?

Between 8 and 15 months

What typically happens to separation anxiety after 15 months?

It usually begins to decrease, although this varies notably among individuals

What is the facial expression of anger?

Furrowed brow, flared nostrils, and a square mouth (sometimes baring teeth)

What is the main function of anger?

It is a reaction to perceived injustice — the feeling that someone has been wronged

What does anger motivate a person to do?

It motivates action to correct the perceived wrong

Are our perceptions and responses during anger always accurate or thoughtful?

No, they are not necessarily accurate or thoughtful

What is “hot cognition”?

Biased cognition that occurs when experiencing strong emotions, such as anger

Why is it hard to identify anger in very young infants?

Because it’s difficult to distinguish from sadness at that age

What is a better term than “anger” for emotional expressions in early infancy?

Distress

What does distress signal to a caregiver?

That something is wrong or the infant needs something

At what age can anger or frustration be easily evoked experimentally?

By around 4 months of age

How can anger be experimentally evoked in a 4-month-old?

By interrupting the child’s goal of reaching for a toy

When does the tendency to react with anger peak in early development?

Between 18 and 24 months

What happens to anger reactions after 24 months?

They begin to decline

What developmental factors contribute to the decline in anger reactions?

Improved language skills, theory of mind (ToM), and sensitivity to social norms

What is the facial expression of sadness?

Downturned corners of the mouth, lips pushed together (possibly trembling), and a slightly furrowed brow

What is the main function of sadness?

To elicit social support

How does sadness help in problem-solving?

It encourages others to provide help or comfort in solving a problem

How does sadness strengthen social relationships?

It helps affirm social bonds and promotes group acceptance

What does sadness help people do emotionally?

It helps co-regulate emotions with others

What phrase summarizes the social function of sadness?

“I need a hug.”

When coding facial expressions directed specifically toward their mother, what was the predominant emotion expressed by toddlers?

Sadness

Why do 2-year-olds express sadness toward their mother?

To elicit social support

What is the facial expression of surprise?

Eyes wide open, arched eyebrows, and mouth open in a round “O” shape

What is the main function of surprise?

To detect when our expectations about the world were incorrect and to stimulate interest, investigation, and learning

How do we define “surprise”?

A sudden realization that something unpredictable has occurred, meaning our past beliefs were wrong

How is surprise different from the startle response?

The startle response is a reflexive reaction to sudden or threatening stimuli and does not involve beliefs, unlike surprise

When do infants typically first experience surprise?

Around 6 months of age

What triggers the emotion of surprise in infants?

A sudden realization that something unexpected has occurred, violating their expectations

When do infants first exhibit the startle response?

Present right from birth

What triggers the startle response?

An unexpected stimulus that grabs attention and makes the infant jump

How is the startle response different from surprise?

The startle response is reflexive and not related to beliefs, whereas surprise involves a realization that past beliefs were incorrect

What is the facial expression of disgust?

Nose crinkled with flared nostrils, mouth open with lips pulled back, and sometimes the tongue protruding

What is the main function of disgust?

To strongly encourage us to avoid things that may make us sick

How does the expression of disgust communicate with others?

It signals “avoid this” to other people

What is moral disgust?

A more complex emotion that is a reaction to “impure” behaviors

How is moral disgust acquired?

It is subjective and learned from cultural norms

How do two-hour-old infants respond to a sugar solution?

They will suckle

How do infants respond when given a bitter or unpleasant solution?

They show signs of disgust

When do children begin labeling things as “yucky” or “gross”?

Early in toddlerhood

Around what age do children accurately recognize the expression of disgust in others?

Around age 9

Before accurately recognizing disgust, which emotion is it often confused with?

Anger

What are self conscious emotions?

Emotions related to one’s sensitivity to the perceptions and reactions of others and one’s perceptions of oneself

What is the focus of guilt?

One’s actions and their consequences for others

What feelings are associated with guilt?

Remorse, regret, and empathy for others

What phrase summarizes the feeling of guilt?

“I did something wrong…”

What behavior is guilt typically associated with?

Attempts to remedy the situation and make amends

What is the focus of shame?

One’s feelings of self-worth or inherent value