MESAS/POLS 272 FINAL EXAM FLASHCARDS

Jahiliyya/Hakimiyya

Jahiliyya - Ignorance, used to refer to modern-day “willful blindness to God’s sovereign power”.

Hakimiyya - the solution to Jahiliyya is Hakimiyya which is to put in place “the absolute sovereignty of God.”

Jihad

“The legitimate use of force, both as a method to enlarge the territory under Islamic Rule and as a means to defend the muslim community when subjected to rule of non-believers and vulnerable to external threats.”

Shii Islam (Twelvers)

Majority Branch - Believe in 12 imams from Ali to Muhammad the Mahdi, who is in occulation (since the 9th century) and will return as a Messianic figure.

Shii Islam (Alawis)

Primarily located in Syria, e.g., the Assad Family. Revere Ali (1st Imam of Twelvers) and identify as a separate ethnolingustic group.

Salafism

The idea that the most authentic and true Islam is found in example of the early generations of Muslims known as the Salaf; who were the closest in time and proximity to the Prophet. Salafis, believes not just in the spirit but in the “letter” of law.

Salafi-Jihadism (Al-Qaeda and ISIS)

Tends to emphasize the military exploits of the Salaf (early generations of Muslims) to give violence a more immediate divine imperative.

Takfir

Declaring someone an apostate, or Kafir. (Essentially excommunication)

Soviet-Afghan War

Soviet’s had a desire to support the struggling communist government in Afghanistan, prevent the spread of Islamic Nationalism, and counter US growing influence.

Things to note:

• led to the eventual Taliban takeover

• Jihadist spelled this as a victory to push their agenda of the “far enemy”.

Sectarianism

“A narrow minded adherence to a particular sect (political, ethnic, religious, etc.), often leading to conflict with those of different sects of possessing different beliefs. Sectarian conflicts are often breeding grounds for acts of terrorism and the formation of terrorist groups.”

Tawhid

Oneness of God

Requires 3 things of Muslims

• Worship God

• Worship only God

• Have the “right” creed as prescribed by the Quran or Sunnah.

Post-Islamism

Term coined by Asef Bayat in context of Iran after the death of Ayatollah Khomeini.

Conceived as a condition and a project focused in limiting the role of political Islam.

Refers to the metamorphosis of Islamic ideals, beliefs, etc.

(Saudia Arabia as a good example of this.)

Hassan Al-Banna

Was an Egyptian school teacher in the Suez Canal Zone, Ismalia.

Founded the Muslim Brotherhood in 1928.

Considered Islam the contemporary way of life. Criticized westernization, British imperialism, and traditionalism of Egyptian ulama.

Gamal Abdel Nasser

Nasser as president of Egypt from 1954 - 1970. A key figure in promoting Pan-Arabism (nationalism in Arabian countries). Extremely secular leader, exiling many members of the Muslim Brotherhood or jailing others. Used Islamic symbols to appear as more religious legitimate.

Sayyid Qutb

Created the Islamic terms Jahiliyya and Hakimiiyyat Allah to describe modern day Muslims ignorance of the “oneness of God.” In his book, Signposts Along the Path, Qutb told the Muslim youth to form a vanguard and launch Jihad against the modern day Jahili system, who opposed the institution of an Islamic government in place. He became a martyr in 1966 after his execution.

Mohammed Morsi

Mohammed Morsi was the first democratically elected president of Egypt and a member of the Muslim Brotherhood. He was removed after just one year in power by Abdel Fattah al-Sisi.

Egyptian Constitution of 2012 was made to replace the 2011 provisional constitution. Article 1 made the “principles of Islamic law, the main legislation”. Was approved by referendum at 60% (32.9 voter turnout), and also used the constitutional revisions to give himself more power as president.

Abdel Fattah al-Sisi

2013: Muslim Brotherhood designated a terrorist organization.

Mohamed Morsi sentenced to death in 2016 trial for espionage, among other charges; this charge was overturned, he died in prison in 2019.

Current head of Muslim Brotherhood has been sentenced to death with thousands of supporters arrested. Also numerous attempts to bring Al-Azhar (school for teaching Islamic clerics and ulama) under additional government control.

Grand Ayatollah Ali Sistani

Has the largest following in Shi’i world, often called “the muslim pope”. Opposed Ayatollah Khomeini, as Sistani practices political quietism. Represents the quietist school of thought, reluctant to get involved in worldly affairs. Pragmatic in dealing with Americans in Iraq, discouraging violence against them, especially after his return to Iraq in 2004.

Hasaan Nashrallah

Former member of Amal. Educated as a cleric in Iran. Led Hizballah from 1992 when his predecessor, Abbas al-Musawi was killed by IDF.

Helped Hizballah cultivate a network of social welfare programs, making the group more than just a Islamist militia.

Charasmatic AF.

Muqtada Al-Sadr (1974 - PRESENT)

Iraq, political leader and cleric from Najaf. After fall of Saddam Hussein Regime in 2003, he headed a group called the Sadrist movement, attracting millions through social service provisions. Established, Jaysh al-Mahdi (militia), which targeted multinational troops in Iraq in 2004, was accused of increasing Shi’i-Sunni conflict.

Grand Ayatollah Muhummad Ali-Shirazi

Iraqi-Iranian marja taqlid (highest religious authority for Shias) and political activist from Najaf. Inspired Shiraziyyun (who tended to be critical of existing Shi’i religious establishments.)

Developed a theory of theocratic rule (hukumat al-fuqaha) which called for the rule of a council of scholars not a single cleric, to rule an Islamic state.

Ibn Taymiyya

Two categories of Tawhid (Oneness of God)

• Unity of Lordship - God is the creator and sovereign of the universe.

• Unity of Worship - God is the only object of worship or obedience (Party of God adopted Islamic law vs. Party of Satan who adopted human made law.)

Osama Bin Laden

Hailed from prominent and wealthy family of Saudi construction magnates.

1980: At urging of Abdullah Azzam, went to Afghanistan to assist Afghan in the Soviet-Afghan War.

1988: Founded Al-Qaeda.

1992: Banished from Saudi Arabia after criticism of its ties with US, went to Sudan until his expulsion in 1996.

1994: Saudi citizenship revoked.

1995: Released “Open Letter to King Fahd" targeting Saudi.

1996: Declared war against US from his base in US.

1998: Issued Fatwa against the US, Jews, and US Embassies.

2001: 9/11 Attacks

2011: Killed in Pakistan by US special forces.

Ayman al-Zawahiri

Egyptian-born leading figure in Egyptian Islamic Jihad. Was wanted by the US for his role in the 1998 US Embassy bombings in Kenya and Tanzania and in the 2002 Bali bombings.

2001: Zawahiri merged Egyptian Islamic Jihad with Al-Qaeda.

December 2001: Released “Knight Under the Prophet’s Banner” outlining Al-Qaeda ideology.

2004: Named Bin Laden’s deputy, succeeding him after his death in 2011.

July 2022: Killed in US drone strike.

Abu Musab Al-Zarqawi

Jordanian-born Jihadist who fought in Afghanistan in 1989 and 2001.

Was imprisoned between 1993-1999 for subverting the government and possessing illegal weapons.

2003: Was granted seed money by Osama Bin Laden to start his own organization in Iraq.

2004: Al-Qaeda in Iraq was founded after Zarqawi pleged loyalty to Bin Laden.

2005: Zarqawi declared “all-out war” on Shias in Iraqi. Governement offensive on the Sunni town Tal Afar.

Muslim Brotherhood

Established in 1928 by Hassan Al-Banna as response to Western influence.
"Islam is the solution."
In practice, provide social services, gained seats in professional associations, and participated in parliamentary elections when allowed.
Cracked down upon by Abdel Nasser (1952-1970) and Sisi since 2014.

Fatah (Palestinian National Liberation Movement)

1959: Founded by members of Palestinian Dispora, mainly Gulf to be a Palestinian Nationalist party.

Ideologically nationalist and socialist.

After Arab loss in 1967 war, Fatah became the most prominent party within the PLO.

PLO

Founded through the Arab League in 1964 w/ the purpose of establishing Arab unity and state-head over the mandate of Palestine, in opposition of Israel.

(After Black September (1971) guerilla groups had to leave Jordan, so PLO lost staging grounds for operations against Israel, began to operate from Jordan.)

After 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon, the PLO had to relocate to Tunis, placing it farther from Palestinians; was seen as too gradual.

Due to acts of violence towards civilians, the PLO was designated a terrorist organization by US. (1987 - 1988)

1993: The PLO thru the OSLO Accords recognized Israel'i’s right to exist.

The Palestinian Authority (PA)

1993 - 1995: Oslo Process involving the PLO established the Palestinian Authority (PA) or Palestinian National Authority (PNA) as the “representative of the Palestinian people” in the West Bank and Gaza.

2005: Mahmoud Abbas of Fatah became the president of the PA. Palestinian Legislative Council is the unicameral legislative of PA, elected by residents of the West Bank and Gaza Strip; its activities were suspended in 2007.

Palestinian Islamic Jihad (PIJ)

Founded by Fathi Abd al-Aziz al-Shikaki in 1981, heavily influenced by the Iranian government. Began its armed operations against Israel in 1984.

1997: Designated a terrorist organization.

Unlike Hamas, which favors mass mobilization, PIJ operates secretly through a cell network, in Gaza and West Bank.

Rejects the Oslo Accords and a two state solution; calls for the military destruction of Israel.

Financial backing comes from Iran, Syria (under Assad) and Hizballah. Headquartered in Tehran.

Armed Wing is called Al-Quds brigade, which is active in West Bank and Gaza.

Has been involved in Suicide bombings, attacks on Israeli civilians, and firing rockets into Israel.

Hamas

2005: Israel withdrew from Gaza Strip.

2006: Hamas won Palestinian Legislative Council elections over Fatah.

2007: Violence emerged between Hamas and Fatah, leading to declaration of state of emergency.

2007: Hamas take control of Gaza Strip.

2017: Hamas signed new reconciliation agreement w/ Fatah. Hamas renounces ties with the Muslim Brotherhood in new document.

2021: PLC elections announced then delayed (none since 2006).

Oct. 7th, 2023: Hamas attack on Israel, killing 1200 and taking 251 hostage.

Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) / Pasdaran

Founded as “the ideological custodian of Iran’s 1979 revolution” (CFR).

Goal is to defend the revolution internal and external threats. Hugely important in domestic economy, politics, and foreign policy.

Has ties to proxies in the region (Hizballah, PIJ, and Hamas).

During the Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988), became more capable in conventional military tactics.

1984: US designates Iran a state sponsor of terrorism. (Has some 190000 troops)

2019: Trump designates IGRC a foreign terrorist organization. Stating that it “promotes terrorism as a tool of statecraft.”

Amal Movement

1974: Iranian born Lebanese scholar Musa al-Sadr founded the group as the “movement of the deprived (Harakat al-Mahrumin) to reform the Lebanese system that neglected its Shi’i community.

Amal, established in 1975, became prominent as a defender of Lebanon’s shia’s during its Civil War (1975-1990) with 14000 at its height.

Recieved support Syria and Shi’i population in Southern Lebanon after Israeli bombings in the 1980s.

Supported the Syrian army against the PLO, and thus clashed with Hizballah (War of Brothers, (88-1990), which had been founded from more religious members of Amal.

Hizballah

1982: Emerged in South Lebanon among Lebanese clerics who had studied in Najaf and adopted the model of Ayatollah Khomeini; has received support from the IRGC since its founding; was initially a rival to Amal.

Self-proclaimed “Shi’i resistance movement” committed to expelling Western powers from Lebanon, destroying the Israeli state, and pledged allegiance to Ayatollah Khamenei (Ayatollah Khomeini’s successor).

Has held position in parliaments since 1992 and cabinet since 2003.

Manages a huge network of social service.

Known for its attacks on foreign targets (1983 Marine barracks bombings in Beirut). Supported attacks on Jews in the America’s, Asia, etc.

Origins of ISIS

2003: Abu Musab al-Zarqawi aligned his group, Jamaat al-Tawhid w’al-Jihad w/Al-Qaeda making it Al-Qaeda in Iran.

2006: Sammarra shrine attack; Zarqawi killed in US air strike and was replaced by Abu Ayyab al-Masiri; US worked w/ Awakening Councils to weaken AQI.

2006: AQI rebranded as the Islamic State and later the Islamic State in Iraq, w/ Abu Omar al - Baghdadi as leader.

2007: Surge in US troops in Iraq drove ISIS from Baghdad; it maintained small numbers of cells, mostly in Mosul.

By 2008: 2400 ISIS members had been killed 8800 had been imprisoned out of 15000.

Rise and Fall of ISIS

March 2013: Raqqa fell to Syrian opposition; ISI along with secular groups and Nusra function coexisted.

April 2013: Al-Baghdadi moved from Iraq to Syria, claimed that ISI has merged with Nusra Front to become ISIS; Julani rejected this alliance and swore allegiance to Al-Qaeda.

Dec. 2013: ISIS militants in Iraq took control of Fulljah.

January 2014: ISIS took over Raqqa, declared it the capital of the ISIS emirates.

February 2014: Al-Qadea cutes ties w/ ISIS.

June 2014: ISIS announced the establishment of a caliphate, rebraning itself as the Islamic State.

Rise of Islamic State Khorasan Province (ISKP)

2014: ISKP was established by a group of defectors from (TTP), Al-Qaeda, Taliban, and from Afghanistan and Pakistan.

January 2015: ISIS announced the formation of Khorasan province; Abu Bakr al-Baghdudi named Hafiz Khan the first emir of ISKP.

2015: Taliban leader Akhtar Masoud urged ISKP to “united under one banner” w/ the Taliban, and the Taliban tired to regain territory under ISKP control.

Between 2015 and 2019, state led operations killed, captured, etc. 10000 IKSP members in Afghanistan.

Summer 2018: ISKP surrender to the Taliban at Jowjan province.

May 2019: ISIS announce new provinces under Pakistan and India.

Taliban and Pashtuns

Emerged in the early 1990s among Afghan mujahedin (guerrilla fighters in Islamic countries, especially fighting against non-Muslim forces) and joined Pashtun tribesmen who studied in Pakistan madrasas.

*Pashtuns are a plurality in Afghanistan and the predominant ethnic group in much of the South and East, as well as Pakistan’s North and East.

Gained support in the initial post-Soviet era by promising to impose stability and rule of law after conflict (1992-1996) among mujahideen groups.

Nov. 1994: Taliban under the leadership of Mullah Omar entered Kandahar to pacify the city.

Sept. 1996: Taliban seized Kabul from President Burhanudin Rabbani, a Tajik whom they viewed as anti-Pashtun and corrupt.

Arab Spring

The Arab Spring timeline began in December 2010 with the self-immolation of a Tunisian vendor and the subsequent protests that led to President Ben Ali fleeing in January 2011. The movement quickly spread to other countries, with major events in Egypt, Libya, Yemen, and Syria in early 2011. Key outcomes included the ousting of leaders in Egypt and Libya, while other conflicts, such as the civil war in Syria, continued for years. 

Iranian Revolution

Reza Shah flees Iran amidst protests. Khomeini returns from exile February 1st, 1979 to a crowd of 5 million people and takes political power, dubbing his government as “God’s government” and disobedience against him or the prime minister is a “revolt against God.”

Non-Islamists reformers join Khomeini despite his clerical rhetoric due to his ideas about reform and his desire to distance himself from association with the West.

Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990)

1971: PLO relocated from Jordan to Lebanon.

1975-1990: Lebanon disintegrated into a collection of sectarian enclaves, each with its own milita.

1976: Syrian military entered Lebanon to support Maronite militia against the PLO.

June 1982: 25000 Israeli troops invaded Lebanon to dislodge the PLO. Pressure from the US and UN led Israel to withdraw, and UN interm forced were installed in Lebanon.

August 1982: Maronite and Israel ally Bashir Gemayel became the president, only to be assassinated weeks later, which led Israel to send its army to West Beirut.

1983: Beirut’s US embassy and marine blockade were attacked by Hizballah.

1983-1985: Israeli evacuation from Lebanon but continued to have a
security zone in the south (10% of Lebanese territory) remaining until 2000.

1982-1988: Amin Gemayel became president, was supported by Syrian troops.

Taif Accord (1989)

Some powers of the presidency were granted to the Muslim prime minister.

(By reducing the power/authority of the Maronite president, the Taif accord recognized the changed demographic reality of Lebanon.)

Changed the ratio of religious representation in Parliament from 6:5 in favor of Christians to an equal number of Christian and Muslim representation by adding 9 new Muslim seats, three to the Shi’i community.

Disbanded the multiple religious militias that were created during the Lebanese Civil War/

Acknowledgment of the existence of a special relationship between Syria and Lebanon. (Ex. 1989-1990: Michel Aoun rebelled against the Syrian army violating Taif accord. 2005: Syrian troops departed Lebanon after Cedar Revolution.)

Link between Economic Strain and Support for Islamist Parties.

Examples for support going up!

Economic strain causes individuals to the exhibit a greater desire for divine rewards in hereafter, which in turn leads them to perform acts that are more religiously meritorious, including voting for Islamist parties.

(Ex. Tunisia: Governates where unemployment was higher saw larger vote shares for Ennahda, an Islamic Democratic party in Tunisia.)

Examples proving this is wrong!

Islamists face structural challenges in wealthy (Rentier) states.

However, Islamists parties can still exist in these countries despite not being able to provide welfare or social service provisions.

(Islamists groups gain followers “a domestic arrangement in which Muslim Brotherhood affiliates exercise political capital through informal and gradual means, despite (or perhaps due to) the presence of hydrocarbon wealth).

Muslim Brotherhood Relationship to Violence

Initial Thought: Gradualist, used tarbiya (Islamic Upbringing) and da’wa (religious outreach) to reach the wider public and Islamize people over time until the entirety of Egypt was “committed” Muslim.

Respone to Qutbism: Supreme leader Hudeibi wrote Preachers, not Judges.

• Emphasizes the flexible nature of sharia and role of Ijtihad.

• States that are committed to Muslims can live under “laws of God.” in the absence of an Islamic state.

• Disavowed the use of violence.

A split emerged between those who supported the Muslim Brotherhood and those who thought it was too gradualist.

Salafism vs. Jihadism

Salafism: A political viewpoint of Islamism in which you avoid politics, instead focusing on religious education over political engagement. (Most authentic and true Islam is found in the example of the early generations of Muslims, known as the Salaf.)

Jihadism: Legitimate use of force, both as a method to enlarge the territory under Islamic rule and as a means to protect the Muslim community when subjected to the rule of non-believers and vulnerable to external threats. (Seen as practicing Ijtihad or interpreting the sacred texts of Islam.)

Points of Contention:

1. Whether Muslims can call leaders apostates and wage Jihad against them.

2. Nature of “defensive” and global Jihad.

3. Permissibility of targeting civilians.

4. Legitimacy of Suicide Bombings (martyrdom operations).

Emergence of ISIS out of Al-Qaeda

Brief Timeline of Events:

1. 2003: US invasions created instability allowing Al-Qaeda in Iraq (AQI) to be formed in Iraq, led by Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, to grown from remnants of other groups.

2. The shiite-dominated Iraqi government alienated Sunnis, allowing ISIS to position itself as their champion, pushing back against sectarian governments.

3. Chaos in Syria (starting 2011) provide fertile ground for ISIS to expand beyond Iraq, attracting foreign fighters and establishing a new front. Would begin splitting from Al Qaeda.

4. Declaration of the Caliphate (2014): The group declared itself the Islamic State (ISIS/ISIL) and announced a caliphate, marking its transformation from an al-Qaeda affiliate to a rival caliphate-seeking entity. 

Abdullah Azzam (1941-1989)

Argued that Jihad is required of Muslims and the obligation is eternal. Collective responsibility instead of individual.

Ideology of Hamas

To counter Palestinian Islamic Jihad, despite having almost identical ideological aims; also to counter the PLO.

Promotes jihad against Israel in the name of Palestinian Nationalism, which it conflates with Islamism. (Consider Palestine as a waqf (religious endowment), meaning that it should be under divine sovereignty, which they translate as under their control.)

Employed suicide bombings in 1993, only 5 months after the OSLO accords.

In recent years, more rhetoric about muqawama (resistance) rather than Jihad.

Since killing of Yahya Sinwar in October 2024, Hamas have led by five members of its Doha-based political office.

Muhummad Ibn Al-Wahhab’s (1703-1798) Contributions

The Ten Voiders or Nullifiers of Islam: 10 Things that Expel Someone from the Religion

3 Main Points

1. Polytheism (associating others with God in worship).

2. Judging by non-Islamic laws and believing these are superior to divine law.

3. Supporting or helping non-believers against Muslims.

What Qualifies as Defensive Jihad

Offensive: Promotes the spread of Islam; can only be waged under the leadership of a caliph and is tempered by truces or treaties; very few Islamists focus on this.

Defensive: Self-defense against an outside invader to protect faith and the faithful; obligatory for Muslims.

Ideology of Amal

Ideology of Al Qaeda

Lebanese Civil War Significance

Lebanese Civil War was significant because religious groups militarized in order to fight for power in Lebanese parliament. Groups like Hizballah were created in this war.