Democratization in the Middle East

Thin democracy

emphasizes the minimal requirements for a functioning democracy, such as regular elections, the protection of individual rights, and a relatively free press

Formalist democracy

focuses on the formal structure and procedures of democratic governance, such as a constitution, separation of powers, and the protection of individual rights. It emphasizes the rules and institutions that govern the political process

Procedural Democracy

emphasizes the importance of democratic procedures like elections, representation, and the rule of law as the basis of a legitimate government. It focuses on the mechanisms by which decisions are made

Thick/normative/substantive democracy

broader, more demanding conception of democracy than the minimalist or procedural version, which focuses solely on fair elections

elections: fair, free, competitive, multi-party

A free election is one in which all citizens are able to vote for the candidate of their choice, and a fair election is one in which all votes have equal power and are counted accuratel

regime type

the form of a political regime, such as democratic versus authoritarian, as well as subtypes, such as personalistic dictatorships or totalitarian regimes

hybrid regime

a government with both authoritarian and democratic elements

Democracy

A political system in which the supreme power lies in a body of citizens who can elect people to represent them

Authoritarianism

A political system in which a small group of individuals exercises power over the state without being constitutionally responsible to the public

types of democracy

participatory, pluralist, elite, representative, direct

Participatory democracy

a system of government where rank-and-file citizens rule themselves rather than electing representatives to govern on their behalf

Pluralist democracy

a model of democracy that stresses vigorous competition among various interests in a free society

Elite democracy

A political system in which the privileged classes acquire the power to decide by a competition for the people's votes and have substantial freedom between elections to rule as they see fit.

Representative democracy

A system of government in which citizens elect representatives, or leaders, to make decisions about the laws for all the people.

Direct democracy

A form of government in which citizens rule directly and not through representatives

Types of Authoritarianism

monarchies, dictatorial regimes, totalitarian regimes

Dictatorial regimes

- military dictatorships: ruled my military officers, often through a coup or by maintaining a strong military presence

- one-party dictatorships: ruled by a single dominant political party, with little or no role for other parties

- personalist dictatorships: characterized by the strong personality and cult of personality of the leader, who wields absolute power

Sultanism

a system of extreme personal rule where the leader governs arbitrarily and absolutely through the selective use of terror and reward

Charismatic leadership

the behavioral tendencies and personal characteristics of leaders that create an exceptionally strong relationship between them and their followers

Coups

a sudden, violent, and illegal seizure of power from a government

Hard coup

involves the forceful and violent overthrow of a government, often involving military action

Soft coup

(also known as a silent or bloodless coup) achieves the same goal of overthrowing a government but without the use of force. Soft coups often target institutions like the legislature, judiciary, and media to subtly weaken the government and pave the way for a takeover

secular-religious tensions

arise from the clash between secular ideologies, which prioritize reason and individual autonomy, and religious beliefs, which often involve a belief in a higher power and adherence to traditional practices. These tensions manifest in various ways, including disagreements over social policies, public displays of religious symbols, and the role of religion in politics and education

Secularism

A doctrine that rejects religion and religious considerations.

Civil-military relations

The relations between a state's civilian leaders and the military leadership. In most countries, the military takes orders from civilian leaders. In extreme cases, poor civil-military relations can lead to military coups.

history, historiography, periodization, longue duree, timescales, policy expectations

the study of past events

Longue duree

a term used in historical studies, to refer to historical continuities over long periods of time, often ones that aren't obvious on the surface.

Democracy promotion

a cluster of activities ranging from diplomacy to aid to intervention designed to foster and support democratization in other countries

Sovereignty

Ability of a state to govern its territory free from control of its internal affairs by other states.

Domestic actors and level of analysis

within a country, include individuals, groups, and institutions that influence a country's internal policies and foreign policy decisions. Focuses on the characteristics of individual states and their internal structures.

examples: Political parties, interest groups, think tanks, media outlets, and even individual leaders

Regional actors and level of analysis

within a specific geographical area, shape regional stability, security, and economic cooperation. Analyzes interactions and dynamics within specific geographic regions.

examples: States, regional organizations (e.g., the European Union), and non-state actors with a regional focus.

International actors and level of analysis

global or international in scope, shape global norms, trade agreements, and security structures. Considers the broader international system, including global institutions and power structures.

examples: States, international organizations (e.g., the United Nations), multinational corporations, and non-state actors with global reach

religious pluralism versus homogeneity: relationship between nationalism and democracy

- Religious pluralism and national identity can exist alongside each other, but religious homogeneity, particularly when coupled with nationalism, can be a source of tension and conflict.

- Democracy, with its emphasis on inclusivity and diverse voices, can better accommodate religious pluralism, while religious nationalism can undermine democratic norms

Religious pluralism

Accepting all religions as having an equal right to coexist

Homogeneity

the quality or state of being all the same or all of the same kind

Founding conditions of statehood and implications for democratization

The traditional view of statehood emphasizes a new entity's ability to govern its territory and interact with existing states. However, the rise of non-democratic states and the shifting international landscape suggest that democratic governance is not always a prerequisite for recognition and statehood. While democratic ideals and institutions might be beneficial for long-term stability and legitimacy, the focus of international recognition has shifted, and autocracies are increasingly recognizing non-democratic states, potentially influencing the future of statehood.

post-imperial

refers to the period or state following the end of an empire's formal rule

post-colonial

a broader term encompassing the enduring effects and ongoing study of colonialism, including its cultural, political, and economic consequences

state-civil society; subjects, citizens, privileges, rights, accountability

In a society, the state and civil society have a complex relationship where the state is responsible for protecting the rights and privileges of its citizens, while civil society acts as a bridge between the state and its people, offering a space for citizen engagement and accountability.

Byzantine/Eastern Roman, Orthodox Christian Empire

The Byzantine Empire, also known as the Eastern Roman Empire, was a continuation of the Roman Empire centered in Constantinople, lasting from 330 to 1453 AD. While its citizens considered themselves Romans, it gradually developed a distinct Byzantine culture, significantly influenced by Greek and Christian traditions. The empire's official religion was Christianity, and it was a major center for the development and spread of Eastern Orthodoxy, which would eventually split from the Roman Catholic Church.

Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire was a powerful, long-lasting Islamic dynasty that ruled vast territories across Southeast Europe, West Asia, and North Africa for over 600 years

Ottoman Conquest of Constantinople

1453

Captured by Mehmed II

Ended the Byzantine Empire

Constantinople became the Ottoman capital of Istanbul

Treaty of Sevres (1920)

Most severe of the treaties with Germany's wartime allies, this treaty Dismembered the Turkish Ottoman empire. Gave Smyrna and Thrace to Greece, the island of Rhodes to Italy, Syria to France, Iraq and Palestine to Britain, and Saudi Arabia to Britain as protectorate. The Saudis would soon become independent

Balkan Wars (1912-1913)

The wars involved the Balkan League (Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, and Montenegro) against the Ottoman Empire in the First Balkan War and then a conflict among the Balkan states in the Second Balkan War.

--> The League's forces swiftly defeated the Ottoman Empire, leading to the Treaty of London, which redrew territorial boundaries and granted the League significant gains.

Treaty of Lausanne (1923)

The Treaty of Lausanne, signed in 1923, was a peace treaty that formally ended World War I and the Ottoman Empire. It established the modern borders of Turkey and resolved issues stemming from the conflict, including the fate of former Ottoman territories. The treaty also addressed the status of the Turkish Straits and other matters related to the defunct Ottoman Empire.

Abolishment of Caliphate (1924)

The Ottoman Caliphate, the world's last widely recognized caliphate, was abolished on 3 March 1924 (R.C. 1340) by decree of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey. The process was one of Atatürk's reforms following the replacement of the Ottoman Empire with the Republic of Turkey.

Sevres Syndrome

refers to a popular belief in Turkey that dangerous internal and external enemies, especially the West, are "conspiring to weaken and carve up the Turkish Republic".

Pan-Arabism

A movement that calls for unification among the peoples and countries of the Arab World, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Arabian Sea. It is closely connected to Arab nationalism, which asserts that the Arabs constitute a single nation.

Egypt nationalism

Egyptian nationalism, initially focused on achieving independence and self-determination for Egypt, later intertwined with pan-Arabism, particularly under Gamal Abdel Nasser

Camp David Accords (1978)

Peace treaty between Egypt and Israel; hosted by US President Jimmy Carter; caused Egypt to be expelled from the Arab league; created a power vacuum that Saddam hoped to fill; first treaty of its kind between Israel and an Arab state

Nasser (1954-1970)

Gamal Abdel Nasser, the second President of Egypt (1956-1970), led the 1952 Egyptian Revolution that overthrew the monarchy. His presidency was marked by his role in the Suez Crisis (1956), the formation of the United Arab Republic with Syria (1958-1961), and his involvement in the Six-Day War (1967). He is remembered as a key figure in Arab nationalism and anti-imperialism.

Sadat (1970-1981)

Anwar Sadat served as the President of Egypt from 1970 until his assassination in 1981. He is known for his historic peace negotiations with Israel, culminating in the Camp David Accords, and the subsequent Egypt-Israel peace treaty. Sadat's efforts led to the Nobel Peace Prize in 1978, but also faced significant opposition, including his assassination by Muslim extremists.

Mubarak (1981-2011)

Hosni Mubarak, who served as the fourth president of Egypt from 1981 to 2011, was ousted by the Egyptian revolution in 2011 as part of the Arab Spring protests. His long rule was marked by the continuation of policies established by his predecessor, including economic liberalization and adherence to the Camp David Accords, while also facing criticism for human rights abuses.

Morsi (2012-2013)

In 2012, Mohamed Morsi became Egypt's first democratically elected president, but was ousted by the military in a coup on July 3, 2013. The coup followed days of mass protests calling for his removal, and the military suspended the 2012 constitution. Egyptian army chief General Abdel Fattah el-Sisi led a coalition to remove him.

Sisi (2014-present)

Abdel Fattah el-Sisi is the current President of Egypt, having been in office since June 2014. He won the 2014 presidential election with a large majority, officially taking office on June 8, 2014. He has been re-elected in 2018 and 2023, winning with high percentages of the vote in both elections. Sisi's presidency is characterized by an authoritarian political climate.

--> He has been criticized for the heavy use of military and security forces to control dissent, with human rights groups noting widespread detentions and restrictions on freedom of expression.

Arab Spring

refers to a series of anti-government protests, uprisings, and armed rebellions that swept across much of the Arab world in the early 2010s. These events were largely driven by widespread dissatisfaction with autocratic rule, economic stagnation, and human rights abuses. While the initial wave of protests and revolutions subsided by mid-2012, the Arab Spring left a lasting impact, leading to regime changes, power vacuums, and ongoing conflicts in some countries.

Arab Spring (Tahrir Square)

The square became a focal point for the Egyptian Revolution in 2011, when protesters occupied it for 18 days, from January 25 to February 11. The protests culminated in the resignation of President Hosni Mubarak in February 2011.

Muslim Brotherhood

Egyptian religious and nationalist movement founded by Hasan al-Banna in 1928; became an example for later fundamentalist movements in the Islamic world.

Kifaya (Enough Movement)

has become the name of a movement and the buzzword of what some Western commentators are calling the "Arab Spring" - the rise of democratic expression around the region.

--> the unofficial moniker of the Egyptian Movement for Change, a grassroots coalition which prior to the 2011 revolution drew its support from across Egypt's political spectrum.

Infitah (economic liberalization through opening and privatization)

meaning "openness" in Arabic, was an economic policy introduced by Anwar Sadat in Egypt after the 1973 war with Israel. It involved significant economic liberalization and privatization, reducing government control over the economy and encouraging private sector growth, both domestic and foreign. This shift also included a change in foreign policy, moving away from the Soviet Union and towards the United States.

Palestine Mandate; British Mandate

The Palestine Mandate, also known as the British Mandate, was a period of British administrative control over Palestine and Transjordan (modern-day Jordan), overseen by the League of Nations after World War I. This mandate, established in 1920 and formally approved in 1922, aimed to create a Jewish national home in Palestine, while also protecting the rights of the Arab population. The mandate ended in 1948, and the territory was partitioned according to a UN resolution.

Hussein-McMahon Correspondence

During World War I, Britain wrote to the Arabs living in Palestine that if they supported their efforts to defeat the Ottoman Empire, they would allow them to be an independent state.

Sykes-Picot Agreement

The 1916 secret agreement between Britain and France that divided up the Arab lands of Lebanon, Syria, southern Turkey, Palestine, Jordan, and Iraq.

Balfour Declaration

Statement issued by Britain's Foreign Secretary Arthur Balfour in 1917 favoring the establishment of a Jewish national homeland in Palestine.

UN Partition Plan

The UN Partition Plan, adopted as General Assembly Resolution 181 on November 29, 1947, proposed the division of the British Mandate of Palestine into separate Jewish and Arab states, with Jerusalem under international control. The plan was met with acceptance by the Zionist leadership but rejection by Palestinian Arabs and surrounding Arab states.

Palestine, Palestinian Territories, occupied territories, West Bank, Gaza

Both the West Bank and Gaza Strip are considered by the international community as "Occupied Palestinian Territory". Israel captured these territories in the 1967 Six-Day War and continues to exercise varying degrees of control.

--> The Palestinian Authority (PA) has limited self-governance in parts of the West Bank, particularly in Areas A and B.

Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO)

This organization formed in 1964 with the purpose of creating a homeland for Palestinians in Israel.

--> At the core of the PLO's ideology is the belief that Zionists had unjustly expelled the Palestinians from Palestine and established a Jewish state in place under the pretext of having historic and Jewish ties with Palestine. The PLO demanded that Palestinian refugees be allowed to return to their homes.

Palestinian Authority

A quasi-governmental body that represents Palestinian interests in the West Bank and Gaza

Hamas

The Islamic Resistance Movement is a Palestinian nationalist Sunni Islamist political organisation with a military wing, the Qassam Brigades. It has governed the Israeli-occupied Gaza Strip since 2007

Nakba (catastrophe)

1948-1949, the ethnic cleansing of Palestinian Arabs through their violent displacement and dispossession of land, property, and belongings, along with the destruction of their society and the suppression of their culture, identity, political rights, and national aspirations

Aliyah (ascent, return)

refers to immigration to the State of Israel. The Hebrew word means "ascension" or "going up," and it's used to describe the process of Jews from around the world settling in Israel. The concept of aliyah is also associated with the Jewish messianic hope of returning to the Land of Israel.

Zionism

a movement for (originally) the re-establishment and (now) the development and protection of a Jewish nation in what is now Israel. It was established as a political organization in 1897 under Theodor Herzl, and was later led by Chaim Weizmann.

Jewish National Fund

a fund that was founded in 1901 to buy and develop land in Ottoman Palestine (later Israel) for Jewish settlement.

Nation-State Law (2018)

defines Israel as the nation-state of the Jewish people and grants them the exclusive right to self-determination in the state.

Crony capitalism

A system in which close friends of a political leader are either legally or illegally given business advantages in return for their political support.

--> advantages gained from having a close relationship with government officials

Neo-patrimonialism/patronage

describes a political system where personal relationships and patronage networks, rather than formal institutions, are the primary means of governing and distributing resources. It's essentially a "modern façade" of formal governance masking a more informal and often corrupt system.

Arab-Israeli War of 1948

Once again a war between Egypt and Israel; Israel quickly won again; Israelis gained control over more areas, specifically the Suez Canal; In order to try and ease the tensions created over this conflict in the Middle East, the US held the Camp David Accords

Six-Day War

(1967) Short conflict between Egypt and her allies against Israel won by Israel; Israel took over the Golan Heights , The West Bank of the Jordan River; and the Sanai Peninsula.

Yom Kippur War (1973)

Frustrated by their losses in the Six-Days War, Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israel during the Jewish holiday of Yom Kippur on October 6, 1973. Israel counterattacked, won a decisive victory, and had even occupied portions of northern Egypt.

Camp David Accords

A peace treaty between Israel and Egypt where Egypt agreed to recognize the nation state of Israel

First Intifadah (1987-1993)

was a sustained series of non-violent protests, acts of civil disobedience and riots carried out by Palestinians in the Israeli-occupied Palestinian territories and Israel.[7][8] It was motivated by collective Palestinian frustration over Israel's military occupation of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip as it approached a twenty-year mark, having begun in the wake of the 1967 Arab-Israeli War.

Second Intifadah

a major uprising by Palestinians against Israel and its occupation from 2000

Pan Arabism versus Syrian nationalism

Syrian nationalism emerged alongside, and sometimes in tension with, pan-Arabism in the early 20th century. The Ba'ath Party, with its pan-Arabist ideology, played a significant role in Syrian politics, particularly in the 1960s and 1970s. However, its influence waned as Syrian state nationalism gained prominence, particularly after the death of Gamal Abdel Nasser

Assad Dynasty

Hafez al-Assad, who was president of Syria from 1971 to 2000, and his son Bashar al-Assad, who has been president since 2000. Hafez al-Assad's father was Ali al-Assad, and his mother was Anisa Makhlouf.

Confessionalism (key groups)

Confessionalism in the Middle East refers to a political system where power and resources are allocated based on religious affiliation, rather than on a secular or national basis.

--> Key groups often involved in confessional politics include major religious communities like Sunni and Shi'a Muslims, Christians (including Maronites, Greek Orthodox, etc.),

--> In Lebanon, for example, the Prime Minister position is traditionally held by a Sunni muslim, reflecting the importance of this idea within the region.

French Mandate

a period of French administration over Syria and Lebanon, granted by the League of Nations in the aftermath of World War I and the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire.

Hama Massacre (1982)

occurred in February 1982 when the Syrian Arab Army and the Defense Companies paramilitary force, under the orders of President Hafez al-Assad, besieged the town of Hama for 27 days in order to quell an uprising by the Muslim Brotherhood against the Ba'athist government.

Al-Qaeda

Islamist terrorist organization that launched a series of attacks against U.S.

ISIS

Islamic State of Iraq and Syria

Security state (intelligence, military, police)

a government or regime that places a disproportionate emphasis on national security, often at the expense of civil liberties and democratic values.

Coups

a sudden, violent, and illegal seizure of power from a government

Ba'ath Party and Ideology

founded in 1947, is a political party with roots in Arab nationalism and socialism, aiming for pan-Arab unity. Initially, the party blended pan-Arabism with Islamic religious values, but later factions, particularly in Syria, adopted a more Neo-Ba'athist and militant socialist approach, leading to significant ideological and political divisions.

Ahmad al-Sharra (Jolani)

also known by his nom de guerre Abu Mohammad al-Julani, is a Syrian politician and former rebel commander who is currently serving as the president of Syria since January 2025. He previously served as the country's de facto leader from December 2024 until his appointment as president

HTS (Hay'at Tahrir al-Sham)

is a Syrian Islamist militant group that was a local affiliate of al-Qaeda in Syria. HTS operates primarily in northwest Syria, particularly in Idlib province. The group is considered a terrorist organization by the US and other countries.

Persepolis, Tehran

s located in the Marvdasht plain of Fars province in Iran, a region within the Middle East. It's a UNESCO World Heritage Site and a key Iranian cultural heritage site, situated near the Zagros Mountains

Constitutional Revolution (1905-1911)

was a short-lived push for democratic rule in the form of a constitutional monarchy within a highly elitist yet decentralized society under the Qajars.

CIA coup against Mossadeqh (1953)

also known as Operation AJAX, was a coup that overthrew the democratically elected Prime Minister of Iran, Mohammad Mosaddegh, and restored the Shah to power.

--> this was a joint effort by the CIA and British intelligence services, motivated by concerns about Mosaddegh's nationalization of the Iranian oil industry and his perceived move towards a more communist government

White Revolution (1963)

was a far-reaching series of reforms in Iran launched in 1963 by the Shah, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, which lasted until 1979; his efforts of modernization of Iran's economy, infrastructure and cultural aspects including irrigation projects, land reform, sale of state-run factories, rights for women and development of better healthcare led to the increased productivity of Iran's economy; led to increased tensions with clergy and peasants in Iran, which would eventually lead to the Shah's downfall in the Iranian Revolution of 1979

Iranian (Islamic) Revolution of 1979

a series of mass demonstrations against the Shah that resulted in his deposal, followed by the creation of a new Islamic Republic, led by Ayatollah Khomeini

Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988)

The war began over territorial disputes. Fighting spread throughout the Gulf region and the United States was dragged into the conflict several times, either being attacked or attacking hostile targets. The war ended in 1988, as Iraq began preparing to invade Kuwait. The area remained a volatile region.