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evolution
change over time in the genetic composition of a population; descent with modification
linnaeus
founder of taxonomy; binomial nomenclature
Domain, kingdom, Phylum, class, order, family, genus, species
(dear king philip came over for good spaghetti)
classification based on anatomy and morphology
cuvier
paleontologist-studied fossils
deeper stata (layers) very different fossils from current life
opposed idea of evolution
catastrophism - catastrophe destroyed many living species then repopulated by immigrant species
hutton
geologist
gradualism- geologic change results from slow and gradual continuous process
lyell
geologist
uniformitarianism- earth’s processes same rate in past and present (are constant) therefore earth is very old
lamarck
published theory of evolution (1809)
compared living species with fossil forms, found several lines of descent
use and disuse: parts of body used - bigger and stronger
inheritance of acquired characteristics: modifications can be passed on
organisms have innate drive to become more complex
malthus
english cleric and scholar, influential in the fields of political economy and demography
more babies born than deaths
consequences of overproducing within environment = war, famine, disease
struggle for existance
charles darwin
(1809-1882) english naturalist
1831-1836 - joined the ITMS Beagle for a 5 year research voyage around the world
collected and studied plant and animal specimens, bones and fossils
notable stop: Galapagos Islands
alfred russell wallace
published paper on natural selection first (1858)
overproduction
populations produce more offspring than can possibly survive leading to competition
natural variation
individuals in a population vary extensively from each other, mostly due to inheritance
fitness
struggle to survive; individuals whose inherited characteristics best fit to environment leave more offspring than less fit
adaptation
enhance an organism’s ability to survive and reproduce
descent with modification
unequal ability of individuals to survive and reproduce leads to gradual change in populations, with favorable characteristics accumulating over generations
Darwin’s theory of natural selection points
over production
natural variation
fitness
adaptation
descent with modification
evidence supporting evolution
fossil record, anatomical record, molecular record, artificial selection
homologous structures
similar structure, similar development, different functions
similarities in characteristics resulting from common ancestry
analogous structures
separate evolution of structures, similar functions, similar external form, different internal structure and development, different origin, no evolutionary relationship
convergent evolution
evolved similar solution to similar problems
filling similar niches in similar environments so similar adaptations were selected
analogous structures
vestigial organs
modern animals may have structures that serve little or no function
remnants of structures that were functional in ancestral species
deleterious mutations accumulate in genes for non-critical structures without reducing fitness
microevolution
a generation to generation change in a population’s frequencies of alleles
two main causes are genetic drift and natural selection
genetic drift
change in population’s allele frequencies due to chance
bottleneck effect
Disasters such as earthquakes, floods, droughts, and fires may reduce the size of a population dramatically
the surviving population may not be representative of the original population’s gene pool
founder effect
occurs when a few individuals from a larger population colonize an isolation island, lake or some other habitat
the smaller the sample size, the less the genetic makeup of the colonist will represent the gene pool of the larger population they left
natural selection
alleles pass on from one generation to the next due to some variants leaving more offspring than others
gene flow
genetic exchange due to migration of fertile individuals or gametes between populations (reduces differences between populations)
mutations
causes a change in DNA. can only lead to evolution and natural selection if the mutation is in the gametes
polymorphism
when 2 or more forms of a discrete character are represented in a population (skin color)
geographic variation
differences in gene pools between populations or subgroups of populations; can occur in different populations or within a population
cline
a graded change in some trait along with geographic axis (altitude)
darwinian fitness
the contribution an individual makes to the gene pool of the next generation relative to the contributions of other individuals
relative fitness
the contribution of a genotype to the next generation compared to the contributions of alternative genotypes for the same locus
directional selection
shifts the frequency curve for variations in some phenotypic character in one direction or the other by favoring what are initially relatively rare individuals that deviate from the average for that character
diversifying/disruptive selection
occurs when environmental conditions are varied in a way that favors individuals on both extremes of a phenotypic range over intermediate phenotypes
stabilizing selection
acts against extreme phenotypes and favors the more common intermediate variants
speciation
the origin of new species
species
a population or group of populations whose members have the potential to interbreed with one another in nature to produce viable, fertile offspring, but who cannot produce viable, fertile offspring with member of other species
reproductive isolation
each species if isolated by factors (barriers) that prevent interbreeding
prezygotic barriers
impede mating between species or hinder fertilization of ova
habitat isolation
behavioral isolation
temporal isolation
mechanical isolation
gametic isolation
habitat isolation
two species living in different habitats within the same area will not encounter one another
behavioral isolation
special signals used by a species to attract mates
temporal isolation
species that breed during different times of the day, season, or year
mechanical isolation
structural differences in genitalia or flowers
gametic isolation
male and female gametes fail to attract each other or are unviable
postzygotic barriers
prevent the hybrid zygote from developing into a viable, fertile adult
creates a zygote that is not viable or fertile
reduced hybrid viability
reduced hybrid fertility
reduced breakdown
reduced hybrid viability
hybrid zygotes fail to develop or fail to reach sexual maturity
reduced hybrid fertility
hybrid fails to produce functional games (mules)
hybrid breakdown
offspring hybrids have reduced viability or fertility (1st generation works, 2nd doesnt)
modes of speciation
allopatric, adaptive, sympatric
allopatric speciation
geographic barrier
interbreeding between two resulting populations is prevented
barriers include rivers to mountain ranges
gene flow is interrupted because they are separated in space
gene flow then diverges
sympatric speciation
formation of a new species without the presence fo a geographic barrier
gene flow is reduced due to chromosomal changes and nonrandom mating
in plants: autopolyploids (more than 2 chromosome sets) and allopolyploids (hybrids of two different spevies with more than 2 chromosome sets)
in animals: genetic factors could cause daughter populations to become dependent on resources other than the parent population
divergent evolution
two or more species originate from a common ancestor
convergent evolution
when unrelated speceis live in the same environment, subjected to the same selective pressures and develop similar adaptations
macro evolution
level of change evident over the time scale of fossil records (mass extinction)
morphological transformations
the evolution of complex structures from simpler versions (eyes)
punctuated equilibrium modell
paleontologists rarely find gradual transitions of fossil forms. they often observe species appearing as new forms rather suddenly in a layer of rock, persisting essentially unchanges, and then disappearing from the fossil record as suddenly as they appeared
species diverge in spurts of rapid change
species selection
species that endure the longest and reproduce the most offspring determine the direction of major evolutionary trends
phylogeny
evolutionary history of a species or group of related species
systematics
study of biological diversity in an environmental context
taxonomy
science of naming, identifying, and describing diverse forms of life
pangea
supercontinent of land masses
early atmosphere
the precambrian atmosphere was composed mainly of nitrogen and carbon dioxide. also had some methane and ammonia. volcanoes released water, carbon monoxide, and even more nitrogen and co2. no free oxygen
origins of life
the joining of monomers produced polymers with the ability to replicate, store, and transfer information
oparin/haldane hypothesis
1920s - primitive earth: volcanic vapors (reducing atmosphere which means electron adding) with lighting and UV radiation
this will enhance complex molecule formation
haldane coined the phrase primitive soup because he suggested the oceans were a solution of organic molecules from which life arose
miller/urey experiment
1953 - water, hydrogen, methane, ammonia, all 20 amino acids, nitrogen bases, and ATP formed, but no organic molecules
evidence suggests that the atmosphere was probably not reducing or oxidizing (electron removing)
possible that just areas around volcanic opening were reducing in order to create molecules
fox eperiment
1959 - suggested that proteinoid formation (abiotic polypeptide spheres) occurs from organic monomers dripped on hot sand, clay, or rock
hot and dry conditions are needed followed by being dissolved in water
permian period
250 mya
90% of marine animals went extinct
8 out of 27 orders of permian insects did not survive
extinction occurred in less than 5 million years
Reasons: same time continents merged to form pangea (marine and terrestrial habitats disturbed), massive volcanic eruptions in Siberia (increase in co2 = global warming)
cretaceous period
64 mya
extinction of dinosaurs
killed more than half of marine species
exterminated many families of terrestrial plants and animals
reasons: the climate became cooler, shallow seas receded form continental lowlands, large volcanic eruption in india, a large comet or asteroid collided with earth
cladogram
a tree constructed from a series of dichotomies or 2 way branch points that represent a divergence of an animal from a common ancestor, the deeper the branch to greater the divergence