psy 108 metacognition

Memory strategies

Techniques or methods used to improve encoding, storage, and retrieval of information in memory

Memory strategies related to practice

Approaches that involve repeated or deliberate practice of material to enhance learning and retention

Total-time hypothesis - TTH (memory strategy related to practice)

amount of material learned depends on the total time spent studying it, assuming time is used effectively

Distributed-practice effect (TTH)

spreading study sessions over time leads to better long-term retention than massed practice

Spaced learning (TTH)

Studying material with intervals of time between sessions to improve retention and memory consolidation

Massed learning (TTH)

Studying material in a single, continuous block of time without breaks, often less effective for long-term retention

Desirable difficulties (TTH)

a reason why distributed practice is helpful for LTM recall bc it creates learning situations that are somewhat difficult

Testing effect

The improvement in memory performance that results from retrieving information through testing rather than just re-studying it

Mnemonics – what are they?

Memory aids or strategies that help encode information in ways that make it easier to recall, often using imagery or organization

Two types of mnemonics

Mnemonics using mental imagery, which create vivid images to link information and mnemonics using organization, which structure information to enhance memory

Mnemonics using mental imagery

form visual images to represent information and facilitate recall

Keyword Method

familiar word that sounds like a target word is used to create an image linking the meaning of the target word

Mnemonics using organization

arrange information systematically to enhance recall, such as grouping or hierarchies

Chunking

Organizing individual items into larger, meaningful units or "chunks" to improve memory capacity (858-127…)

Hierarchy

Organizing information into categories and subcategories to create a structured framework for easier recall (most general to more specific)

First-letter technique

Creating a word or phrase from the first letters of a list of items to aid in memorization (SAMPLE)

Narrative technique

Linking items together in a story or sequence to improve memory through contextual and meaningful connections

Retrospective vs prospective memory – examples and definitions. How do they differ? What are some similarities?

Retrospective memory - remembering past events or information, such as recalling a fact. prospective memory - remembering to perform future actions, such as attending a meeting. both rely on cues and monitoring, but retrospective focuses on the past and prospective on intended actions

Memory aides and prospective memory

Tools or strategies, like calendars, alarms, and lists, that help individuals remember to carry out planned future actions

Definition of metacognition

knowledge and control of cognitive processes

What is metamemory?

A subset of metacognition that involves awareness, monitoring, and control of one's own memory processes

Foresight bias

The tendency to overestimate one's future memory performance or learning ability

Immediate metamemory compared to metamemory after a delay?

Immediate metamemory often relies on short-term impressions and familiarity, making it less accurate. delayed metamemory, which involves a brief interval before judgment, is more accurate because it engages retrieval from long-term memory and reduces overconfidence

Research on metamemory (in relation to factors that influence metamemory, and regulation of study strategies)

students spend longer than necessary studying items they already know and not enough time studying items they have not yet mastered. With little time , students focus on easier material. When they have more time, they focus on hard material.

Tip-of-the-tongue effect

person feels certain they know something but cannot retrieve it at the moment

Feeling-of-knowing effect

A metamemory judgment in which a person predicts their ability to recognize or recall information in the future, even if it is not currently retrievable

Metacomprehension Definition, How accurate is it? How can we improve it?

thoughts about language comprehension, can individuals assess how well they understand info they were exposed to, helps you decide what you have to study. In general, college students are not very accurate in metacomprehension, think they understand but fail to retain specific info. Research shows readers are not accurate in estimating how much they understand. Improve metacomprehension by reading, waiting, and summarizing without looking at text.

What is meta-cognition?

one’s knowledge about what one knows

Meta-cognitive knowledge

general knowledge about what one knows and how one thinks

Meta-cognitive experience

conscious cognitive or affective experiences that accompany and pertain to any intellectual enterprise: feeling confused or aha moment

What is meta-memory?

one’s knowledge about their own memory

Types of metamemory judgments

ability to anticipate future memory performance

Predicting future memory performance

span estimation, show 1-10 pictures, how many can you recall? Younger children overestimate performance. Poor meta memory

At encoding (judgments of learning)

prediction of how well one will remember something

Type of judgement of learning: Ease of learning

how much study time will be required to learn something. Predict study rates fairly well

Type of judgement of learning: Paired associative judgements

CAT - DRUM. predict subsequent performance on paired-associate test. Introducing brief delay between cue and association enhances prediction because it acts as a mini retrieval task in itself (reducing overconfidence of thinking you know something without actually retrieving it). People are able to use initial retrieval ability, after the short dealy, to gauge subsequent ability
At retrieval (tip of the tongue - TOT)

Brown and McNeil studies

give participants definitions and ask them to recall the word. Compared performance for those reporting TOT and those not reporting. Those who experienced TOT were more accurate with first letter, # of syllables, and more likely to eventually recall full word

Assessing the source of one’s memory (reality monitoring)

determine whether memory is internally or externally generated

Source monitoring judgments

did I actually say this? Where did I learn this? Etc.

External vs internal memories

External relies on sensory details, internal relies on cognitive operations, failures happen on memories with overlapping attributes

Roommate study

keep track and share dreams for a month, at end of month indicate which dreams were yours or theirs. People confuse their dreams with roommate’s

Schooler stop/yield sign study

½ have false memory planted of yield sign, ½ actually see yield sign, compare memories across two groups. Internal and external memories differ in properties. Real memories more sensory detail, false memories more cognitive operations and described with more words.

Fruit study

greater reality monitoring confusions when properties overlap more. Eat peach, imagine low detail banana, imagine high detail apple. More likely to confuse actual experience with imagined experience when the fruits share more similar properties.

Mnemonics

memory aids by creating associations

Keyword method

link a new, unfamiliar word to a familiar word that sounds similar (gato - gate, cat sitting on gate)

Link/story method

associate items in a manner that preserves order. Establish chain of associations with each item associated with the next. A bird with a watch typing on computer

Method of Loci

memorize material by mentally placing items around a familiar location which provides pre-established memory cue to associate information (highway exits 1,2,3…corresponding to grocery list)

Rhymes

rhyming phrases (I before E except after C..)

Catch phrases

clever expressions (spring forward, fall back)

Acronym

SAMPLE, ROYGBIV, etc.

Big picture conclusions

meta cognition - knowledge about what you know. Meta memory - knowledge about memory. Judgements of learning are meta-memory judgements about encoding. Tip of tongue and reality monitoring are meta memory judgements about retrieval.