MCAT various content review

astrocytes

CNS

maintain blood-brain barrier

ependymal cells

CNS

Line spinal cord and ventricles of the brain

Produce CSF

oligodendrocytes

CNS

myelinate CNS axons, provide structural framework

Microglia

CNS

Brain’s immune cells

Satellite cells

PNS

surround neuron cell bodies in ganglia

regulate neurotransmitter levels

Schwann cells

PNS

Myelinate neurons in PNS

maintenance and regeneration of neurons after injury

penetrance

whether genotype is expressed or not

proportion of individuals exhibiting the phenotype corresponding to a given genotype

expressivity

degree of expression of a phenotype for a given genotype

severity of symptoms based on different alleles

hydrolase

hydrolysis enzyme

transferase

transfer of functional group or phosphate from one group to another

ligase

catalyze addition or synthesis rxns

generally b/w large similar molecules

redox enzymes

oxidoreductase; oxidase; dehydrogenase; mono/di-oxygenase; hydroperoxidases

gastrulation

when three primary germ layers form; involves rearrangement of epithelial cells

glycogenolysis

glycogen phosphorylase - removes single G-1P molecules

• In the liver: prevents low blood sugar

• In muscle: activated by epinephrine and AMP; provides glucose to muscle

debranching enzymes - removes block of oligoglucose and attaches it to rest of chain via α-1,4 bond

glycogenesis

glycogen synthase - makes α-1,4 bonds

branching enzymes - makes α-1,6 bonds

glyconeogenesis

Pyruvate carboxylase: pyruvate —> OAA

PEP carboxykinase: OAA —> PEP

F1,6-bisphosphatase: F1,6-BP —> F6-P

G 6-phosphatase: G6-P —> glucose

Pentose phosphate pathway

in cytoplasm

generates NADPH and sugars

Rate limiting - G-6P dehydrogenase

Activated by NADP⁺ and insulin

Inhibited by NADPH

NADPH uses

biosynthesis of fatty acids and cholesterol

cellular bleach production of WBCs

maintenance of supply of reduced glutathione

acetyl-CoA Carboxylase

rate-limiting enzyme of fatty acid biosynthesis

requires biotin and ATP

Adds CO₂ to acetyl-CoA —> malonyl-CoA

Activated by insulin and citrate

CO₂ removed during fatty acid synthesis

glutathione

antioxidant; protects from radical oxidative damage

Gap junctions

communication b/w cells by electrical signals or small chemical messengers

express connexin

Tight junctions

hold cells together and prevent liquid from passing b/w cells, allowing for layer of cells to act as impenetrable barrier

Desmosomes

function to anchor cells together

prominent in cells w/n organs that stretch like cardiac and skin tissue

hemidesmosomes - attach epithelial cells to basement membrane

viral lysogenic phase

host continues to live and reproduce normally, while the bacteriophage lies in a dormant state in the host cell

reducing agent

reduces something else

get oxidized

oxidizing agent

oxidizes something else

gets reduced

molar mass of glucose

160g/mol

acid anhydride

highly reactive and break into their component carboxylic acids if they contact water

D vs L enantiomers

use Fischer projection; depends on the last chiral carbon (highest number)

if highest priority is pointing right —> D

if highest priority is pointing left —> L

dextrorotary

dex, d, or +

rotates polarized light clockwise

levorotary

levo, l, -

rotates polarized light counterclockwise

myopia

nearsightedness

focal length is too small

light rays converge at too short a distance

(-) diopters

hyperopia

farsightedness

focal length too big

light rays converge at too far a distance

(+) diopters

iFOT

normalizes level of protein of interest in particular sample to the total protein in that sample

controls for variability in extraction efficiency on a sample basis

Southern blot

identify and quantify the presence of specific DNA sequences

Northern blot

identify and quantify the presence of specific RNA sequences

Eastern blot

analyze protein post-translational modifications including the addition of lipids, phosphates, and glycoconjugates

Peptide hormone receptor

Usually G protein-coupled receptors

concentration cells

standard cell potential E^o=0

chymotrypsin

preferentially cleaves peptide bonds next to large hydrophobic amino acids

aminopeptidase & carboxypeptidase

cleaves single amino acid from either side of the protein

anion exchange column

used to isolate (bind) anions

is positively charges

cation exchange column

used to isolate (bind) cations

is negatively charged

AA’s that are ketogenic but NOT glucogenic

leucine and lysine

respiratory epithelial cilia

prevent infection by pathogens

decrease obstructive lung disease

move mucus

nonmotile cilia are responsible for cough reflex

caspases

proteins involved in apoptosis

triggered by release to Cytochrome-c from Mitochondria

DNA binding strength

C-G bonds > A-T bonds

ΔG equations

ΔG = -RT*lnK_eq

ΔG = -nFE^o

Calculating pI

for neutral AA’s: Avg the main chain carboxyl and amino groups

for negative AA’s: Avg the main chain carboxyl group and side chain

for positive AA’s: Avg the main chain amino group and side chain

Smooth ER is primarily a site of what?

carbohydrate biosynthesis

Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA)

Uses antibodies to specifically bind to molecules of interest with a second detector antibody

β oxidation

each round removes two oxygens

converts fatty acid into acetyl-CoA

produces 8 acetyl-CoA in total (7 rounds)

ketogenic amino acids

leucine, lysine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, tyrosine

radiation intensity

dependent on the number of photons emitted over time

volume of 1 mol of ideal gas at std conditions

22.4 L

chemiosmosis

Movement of ions across a semi permeable membrane, down their electrochemical gradient

(like moving H+ to make ATP)

how enzymes alter the rate of chemical rxns

co-localizing substrates, altering local pH, altering substrate shape, stabilizing the formation of the intermediate

flat bones

contain red bone marrow

found where little movement is needed

ribs, skull

long bones

found where movement is needed

hands, arms, feet, legs

irregular bones

vertebrae

short bones

box-like appearance

carpals and tarsals

sesamoid bones

embedded in tendons

patella, pisiform

competitive inhibition

V_max same, K_M increased

noncompetitive inhibition

V_max decreased, K_M same

uncompetitive inhibition

V_max decreased, K_M decreased

electrophoresis charges

cathode is (-)

anode is (+)

IUPAC functional group priorities

carboxylic acid > acid anhydride > ester > amide > nitrile > aldehyde > ketone > alcohol > amine > alkene > alkyne > alkane

percent composition by mass equation

mass of solute/mass of solution x 100

mole fraction equation

# mol of compound/total # mol in system

molality

# mol of solute/kg of solvent

normality

# gram equivalent weights of solute/L of solution

equivalent weight = mass (g) needed to get 1 mol

carbamate

carbon of an amide group

double-displacement (ping-pong)

no ternary complex is formed

only one substrate and product at a time

buffering capacity

±1 pH unit from pK_a

A-T: 2

C-G: 3

number of hydrogen bonds between nucleotides

A&G

purines

T&C

pyrimidines

Henry’s law

S=k_HP_g

_{gas solubility = constant * partial pressure of the gas}

50S - large subunit from prokaryote

60S - large subunit from eukaryote

70S - full ribosome from prokaryote

80S - full ribosome from eukaryote

sedimentation coefficients of ribosomes

amber codon

stop codon

(TAG)

endosome

vesicle from endocytosis

naming explosion

refers to the fact that toddlers add a ton of words to their vocabulary between the ages of one and tow.

overextension

refers to incorrectly using one word to refer to things related to that word. For example, refering to all plants as 'trees' is an example of overextension.

categorical perception

idea that there are distinct categories between things that occour on a continum. For example, most people see a hard cutoff between "red" and "orange" even though all colors exist on a continum of wavelenghts.

bootstrapping

building on existing resource; for language development

elaborative encoding

combining new (to-be-remembered) information with existing memory representations, which enhances the probability of retrieving that new information.

Systematic desensitization

is a classical conditioning technique in which the intensity of an unconditioned stimulus is gradually increased until it no longer elicits the conditioned

shaping

reinforcing successive approximation to desired behavior

spontaneous recovery

process by which a previously extinguished behavioral response returns after a delay (i.e., a rest period) following extinction.

retinal height

monocular depth cue

Objects that are higher up in the visual field are perceived as being farther away than the objects that are lower in the visual field.

culture lag

norms and values have yet to catch up with technological advances.

life course perspective

reflects the intersection of social and historical factors with personal biography and development within which the study of family life and social change

discusses various stages of life

social epidemiology

focuses on the social determinants of health and disease.

relative deprivation

expectations surpass the material resources that a group or individual has