AP Psychology - Unit 2 Review

biological psychologists

studies the link between mental processes and behavior (between mind and body)

neuron

basic building block of the nervous system

dendrites

branching extensions that RECEIVE incoming messages and conduct messages toward the cell body

soma

nervous cell body, containing the nucleus

axon

extension of a neuron which takes messages from the soma to other neurons; the longest part of the neuron

terminal buttons

located on the end of the axon that release neurotransmitters to communicate with other neurons

myelin sheath

layer of fatty cells segmentally encasing the fibers of many axons which allows faster transmission speeds in neurons

action potential

neural impulse → a brief electrical charge that travels down an axon very very fast which is only released when receptors feel something (all or nothing response)

resting potential

refers to the neuron when it is not active or negatively charged

threshold

refers to the minimal level of stimulation required for a neural impulse to fire

refractory period

period of inactivity after a neuron has fired

synapse

a junction/gap between the axon of sending neuron and dendrite of receiving neuron → used to communicate between neurons

neurotransmitters

chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons

reuptake

a neurotransmitter’s reabsorption by the sending neuron (undo → take back chemical messenger even after release)

acetylcholine

involved in learning, memory, and muscle contraction; shortage may lead to Alzheimer’s or muscular disorders

serotonin

involved in mood, hunger, arousal, and sleep; shortage may lead to depression

dopamine

involved in movement, attention, learning, and emotion; excess may lead to schizophrenia while shortage may lead to tremors and decreased mobility (Parkinson’s)

epinephrine

also a hormone, aka adrenaline; plays a role in body’s flight-or-fight response(sympathetic nervous system) → speeds up heart rate

norepinephrine

involved in alertness, physiological arousal (blood pressure and heart rate), learning and memory (more effect on blood vessels - narrows them and increases blood pressure); excess can lead to anxiety or insomnia

endorphins

“the morphine within”; involved with pain, control, and pleasure → a natural sedative: an excess leads to less pain while a shortage can lead to depression, anxiety, and moodiness

GABA

inhibitory neurotransmitter; helps relax and calm the body down, regulates sleep; shortage can lead to anxiety, seizures, tremors, and insomnia

glutamate

excitatory neurotransmitter; involved in learning and memory; excess can lead to migraines, seizures, anxiety, and depression

agonists

chemicals that mimic the effects of a neurotransmitter → binds to different receptor site and stimulates a response

antagonists

chemicals that block the transmission of a neurotransmitter → bind to receptor site instead of the neurotransmitter

blood-brain barrier

filters out unwanted chemicals in the brain; break down of this results in meningitis

nervous system

electrochemical communication center consisting of the CNS and PNS

central nervous system (CNS)

consists of the brain and spinal chord

peripheral nervous system (PNS)

sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body; divided into autonomic and somatic

somatic nervous system

division of the peripheral nervous system that controls the body’s skeletal muscles

autonomic nervous system

the part of the peripheral nervous system that controls the glands and the muscles of the internal organs; its sympathetic division arouses; its parasympathetic division calms

sensory neurons

neurons that carry info from the sensory receptors (in PNS) to the brain and spinal chord (in CNS); also called afferent neurons

interneurons

neurons within the CNS that internally communicate between sensory and motor neurons

motor neurons

take information from the CNS to the muscles and glands within the PNS; also called efferent neurons

reflex

simple, autonomic, inborn response to a sensory stimulus; the spinal chord is in charge, the brain is NOT involved

endocrine system

the body’s slow chemical communication system; secretes hormones into the bloodstream

hormones

cousins of neurotransmitters; chemical messengers, manufactured by the endocrine glands, that are produced in one tissue and affect another

adrenal glands

endocrine glands above the kidneys that secrete the hormones epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which help to arouse the body in times of stress

pituitary gland

most influential gland, controlled by hypothalamus, regulates growth, controls other endocrine glands

lesion

removal or destruction of part of the brain, NOT for research purposes → helps determine loss of function from removal

EEG (electroencephalogram)

amplified recording of the waves of electrical activity that sweep across the brain’s surface; measured by electrodes placed on the scalp → used in sleep studies

CT (computed tomography) scan

series of x-ray photographs taken from different angles and combined by computer ; 2D pic of brain structure → shows structure not function, see soft-tissue structures/tumors

PET (position emission tomography) scan

visual display of brain activity that detects where a radioactive form of glucose goes while the brain performs a given task → shows brain activity through glucose use (more glucose more activity)

MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

technique that uses magnetic fields and radio waves to produce computer generated images that distinguish among different types of soft tissue → see structures within the brain

fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging)

combines elements of MRI and PET; reveals blood flow and brain activity by comparing successive MRI scans → shows brain function and structure

brainstem

lower base which connects the spinal chord to the brain; is the oldest part of the brain responsible for automatic survival functions

medulla

located at the base of the brainstem; controls the heartbeat and breathing

cerebellum

responsible for balance and movement; referred to as the “little brain” attached to the rear of the brainstem

pons

connects the lower and mid brain regions; regulates brain during sleep and dreaming

reticular formation

nerve network that connects to the brainstem that plays an important role in consciousness and arousal; destruction of this results in an irreversible coma

thalamus

“sensory switchboard” or the “relay station” all auditory (hearing), visual, taste, and touch signals pass through it where it relays it to the appropriate part of the brain (NOT smell)

limbic system

major role in controlling emotions and drives includes the hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland

hippocampus

formation of memories

hypothalamus

involved in variety of drives; influences feelings of hunger, thirst, and for sex

pituitary gland

controlled by the hypothalamus; it regulates growth and other organs in the endocrine system

amygdala

neural clusters linked to emotions like aggression and fear

the cerebral cortex

brain’s ultimate control and information processing center; contains all the interconnected neural cells that cover cerebral hemispheres; contains lobes

glial cells

cells in nervous system (not just in the cerebral cortex) that support, nourish and protect neurons, maintain homeostasis, clean up debris, form myelin (they aren’t neuron cells)

frontal lobe

involved in speaking and muscle movements along with making plans and judgement includes the motor cortex: controls voluntary movements

parietal lobe

includes the somatosensory cortex → allows you to register and process body sensations (sense of touch)

occipital lobe

includes the visual areas involved in seeing

temporal lobe

includes the auditory areas which are involved in hearing

association areas

areas of cerebral cortex not involved in motor or sensory processes; makes up largest portion of cortex which is involved in higher mental functions such as learning, memory, thinking, and speaking (more intelligent animals have more of this)

plasticity

brain’s ability to modify itself after damage, other parts of brain compensate for damaged area; dendrites might be able to make new connections and take over functions in another part of the brain (younger brains are more plastic → likely to do better when damaged)

neurogenisis

brains attempt to mend itself by producing new brain cells; baby neurons start deep in brain and migrate to form new connections

corpus callosum

large bundle neural fibers that allows the two sides of the brain to communicate → carries messages between the two hemispheres

split brain

cutting of the corpus callosum done to alleviate epileptic seizures (last resort); Left brain → Language and Logic, Right brain → Rtistic

sperry and gazzaniga

researchers who did research on split-brained patients and figured out that there’s no communication between brain halved when corpus callosum is cut; interpreter theory → why people have unified sense of self and mental life

cerebral dominance

refers to these tendencies for each brain hemisphere to exert control over different functions such as language (left) or perception or spatial relationships (right)

aphasia

impairment of language, usually caused by damage to the left hemisphere to the brain either in Broca’s or Wernicke’s area

broca’s area

an area of the left frontal lobe (motor cortex) that directs the muscle movements involved in producing speech; damage = trouble speaking words but comprehension generally okay (expressive/non-fluent aphasia)

wernicke’s area

an area of the left temporal lobe (auditory cortex) involved in language comprehension/reception; damage = speak meaningless words (if you are listening but not paying attention to the actual words it seems okay) - often unaware they aren’t making sense (receptive/fluent aphasia)

alcohol

depressant- slowed neural processing, memory disruption, reduced self awareness & self control; use-disorder can shrink brain → has expectancy effect where what you expect to happen happens after use

barbiturates

(tranquilizers) depressant - depresses the nervous system, sometimes prescribed to induce sleep or reduce anxiety; high doses impairs judgement and memory

opiates

depressant - depress neural functioning, pleasure replaces pain and anxiety; repeated use results in extreme addiction cuz brain stops producing endorphins (ex. heroin, codeine, morphine)

opiates vs opioids

opiates are natural opioids→ extracted/refined from plant matter; opioids are synthetic

amphetamines

stimulant - cause a speeding up of neural activity, increase energy and mood changes

nicotine

stimulant - one of most addictive stimulants, triggers brain to release flood of neurotransmitters

methamphetamine

stimulant - triggers release of dopamine, stimulates moods, enhances energy, reduces dopamine production with excess use

ecstasy

stimulant - (mild hallucinogen) triggers dopamine release, released stored serotonin and blocks its re-uptake; high energy, emotional elevation, and connectedness to others

cocaine

stimulant - blocks reuptake of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine

LSD

hallucinogen - emotions range from euphoria to detachment to panic, near death experience feeling

marijuana

hallucinogen (contains THC) - amplifies sensitivity to color, sounds, taste and smell, impaired memory and learning

consciousness

awareness of ourselves and our environment → part of dual processing that goes on in two-track mind (brain works at conscious and unconscious level at same time)

circadian rhythms

biological process over approx 24 hour period: sleep-wake cycle, blood pressure, pulse rates → regular bodily rhythms differ with age and experience (teens stay up late, old ppl wake up early)

alpha waves

relaxed and AWAKE, slow waves

delta waves

large and slow waves, DEEP sleep

NREM 1

brief period; may experience hallucination kinda? like falling floating dreams, light sleep, slowing heart rate, decreasing blood pressure

NREM 2

lasts about 15-20 min; sleep spindles (periodic bursts of rapid, rhythmic brain-wave activity

NREM 3

lasts about 20-4o min; deep sleep, delta waves, low levels of breathing, slow heart rate, low blood pressure

REM

(rapid eye movement) recurring sleep stage during which vivid dreams occur (also nightmares); paradoxical sleep: brain active but body paralyzed

REM rebound

tendency for REM sleep to increase following REM sleep deprivation; created by repeated awakenings during REM sleep

biological influence of sleep patterns

suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN): a pair of cell clusters in the hypothalamus that control circadian rhythm → responds to light and cases pineal gland to decrease melatonin production

sleep theories

• sleep protects

• sleep helps us recuperate

• sleep helps restore/rebuild fading memories from the day

• sleep feeds creative thinking

• sleep supports growth

sleep deprivation

results in feeling tired everywhere (physically, mentally, emotionally), can be a predictor of depression, difficulty studying and learning, diminished productivity, irritability, prone to making mistakes, weight gain, suppression of immune cells, impacts visual attention

insomnia

most common sleep disorder; recurring problems falling asleep, staying asleep, or waking up too early; as you age waking up at night becomes normal; sleeping pills/alcohol can make it worse

narcolepsy

attacks of overwhelming sleepiness (literally drops down to sleep in middle of task) lasting less than 5 minutes, often happens at inconvenient times with muscles paralyzed sometimes; meds and naps can help

sleep apnea

blocked off breathing → can result in death in extreme cases; loud snoring, irregular breathing, gasping for air (common in overweight men over 50)

night terrors

most common in children; sitting up, walking, talking incoherently; happens during NREM 3

sleep walking

more common in children than adults, occurs in NREM 3, usually can’t remember the next day that any of it happened

what we dream

sequence of images, emotions, and thoughts passing through a sleeping person’s mind, trauma can cause nightmares, sensory stimuli can make way into a dream (odors or phone ringing)