philosophy

What is the main argument of Rousseau’s Discourse on the Sciences and Arts?

Rousseau argues that the advancement of the arts and sciences has led to the corruption of morals, not their improvement.

What big question is Nietzsche asking in On the Genealogy of Morals?

Where did our ideas of “good” and “evil” actually come from—and who got to decide? He’s not just talking philosophy; he’s digging into the psychology and history behind morality.

What did Paul Rée believe about altruism and morality?

Rée thought morality came from altruism—acts of kindness or selflessness. He said that over time, people saw unselfish behavior as useful for the group, and so it got labeled as “good.” Eventually, people forgot the usefulness part and just started believing kindness was morally right in itself.

Why does Nietzsche think Paul Rée got it wrong?

Nietzsche says Rée left out the messy stuff: resentment, power, and revenge. Morality wasn’t born out of usefulness—it was born out of conflict. The weak rewrote the rules to make themselves look holy and the strong look evil.

What is master morality in everyday terms?

It’s the mindset of winners. Being powerful, proud, bold, confident—that’s what counts as good. If you’re strong, you don’t need permission to act. You just live fully.

What is slave morality in everyday terms?

It’s morality created by the underdogs. Instead of being strong, they say it’s good to be humble, kind, self-sacrificing. But really, they’re flipping the script to feel better about losing.

What’s ressentiment—and why does Nietzsche care?

Ressentiment is when you can’t fight back, so you stew in resentment. You make yourself feel better by calling your enemy “evil.” It’s like when someone who’s jealous of confidence calls it arrogance.

What role does the priest play in Nietzsche’s theory of morality?

The priest is the mastermind of slave morality. He teaches the weak to see their suffering as holy, their powerlessness as purity, and their enemies (the strong) as sinners. Instead of fighting back, the priest tells them: “Your reward is in heaven. Be meek. The strong are evil.”

What’s the deal with the lamb and the bird of prey?

The lamb says, “That bird is evil for eating me!” But the bird isn’t evil—it’s just doing what birds do. Nietzsche says: calling strength ‘evil’ is just the lamb trying to rewrite nature’s rules.

What did Nietzsche say about culture?

Nietzsche saw most culture—especially modern Western culture—as decay wearing a mask of progress. He thought true culture should elevate strength, creativity, and individuality, but instead, it often spreads conformity, guilt, and weakness by moralizing everything.

Why does Nietzsche say the poor (or weak) created forgiveness?

Nietzsche argues that forgiveness was invented by the powerless as a way to cope with their inability to take revenge. Since they couldn’t fight back, they flipped the script—calling mercy and forgiveness virtues, and labeling strength and power as evil.

What is one key tenet of Rousseau’s critique of progress?

Progress in the arts and sciences produces superficiality, vanity, and inequality rather than genuine human improvement.

What does the metaphysics of moral means

Foundation of higher level knowledge that teaches us to be good

Chapter 1 – Vanity and the Wretchedness of Man(pascal)

Pascal says humans are vain—we constantly seek admiration, pleasure, and distractions to avoid seeing how fragile and lost we really are. This vanity hides our misery and distance from God.

What is Pascal’s paradox of greatness and wretchedness?

Humans are both great (we can think, love, create, seek truth) and wretched (we are weak, selfish, sinful, mortal).

This contradiction points to a fallen nature: we were made noble, but we are broken—explaining why nothing in this world fully satisfies us.

What does Pascal mean by the vanity of human justice?

Justice varies by country, custom, and time. What’s “just” in one place is “unjust” in another. This shows human justice is relative, not absolute, and often shaped by power rather than truth.

What does Pascal say about imagination and reason?

Imagination is the most deceptive power we have—it can override reason and convince us of illusions (honor, beauty, fame, etc.). We believe in appearances more than truth. Even reason itself can be corrupted by imagination.

What is “divergence” in Pensées?

Divergence is when people distract themselves with pleasures, work, or ambition to avoid thinking about their mortality and spiritual emptiness. It’s a coping mechanism to escape inner misery.

What is “indifference” in Pensées?

Indifference is when people don’t care about life’s biggest questions—why we’re here, whether God exists, or what happens after death. Pascal sees this as even worse than doubt because it’s willful ignorance.

Why does Pascal say humans are obsessed with movement?

We constantly seek activity and stimulation—“stir”—because it distracts us from thinking about death, suffering, and meaning. Even pointless busyness feels better than confronting silence or stillness.

Why does Pascal say we must not be indifferent?

Because the question of God, eternity, and our purpose is too important to ignore. If Christianity is true, indifference risks eternal loss. If it’s false, you’ve lost nothing by caring. So not caring is irrational and dangerous.

What is the central idea of Chapter 3 in Pensées?

Pascal says that truth—especially religious truth—can’t be found by reason alone. The heart has its own kind of knowledge: intuitive, emotional, moral.

What are Pascal’s three types of people in relation to God?

1. Those who seek God and have found Him – These are the wise and happy.

2. Those who seek but have not yet found – These are the wise and unhappy (Pascal respects them).

3. Those who do not seek and do not care – These are the foolish and unhappy (Pascal finds this inexcusable).

Why does Pascal focus on the Jewish people in Chapter 4 of Pensées?

He sees the Jews as a miraculous witness to God’s plan. Their survival, sacred texts, and prophecies—all despite persecution—are signs of a divine covenant and the foundation for Christianity.

What are Pascal’s 4 signs that Christianity is the true religion?

What are the 4 historical-revelatory clues that point to God in Pascal’s Pensées?

1. God hides Himself to preserve free, heartfelt belief.

2. Scripture contains coded, prophetic truth across centuries.

3. Prophets reveal divine wisdom and point to the Messiah.

4. The Jewish people are a living witness of God’s long-term plan.

Why does Pascal say Jesus makes Christianity unique?

Because Jesus is the only figure who fully embodies the solution to the human condition. He is both God and man, showing us our greatness (we’re worth saving) and our wretchedness (we need saving).

Through His humility, suffering, death, and resurrection, Jesus offers grace, not just advice or law—something no other religion provides.La

What is Pascal’s Wager?

If you wager that God exists, and you’re right—you gain eternal happiness. If you’re wrong—you lose very little. But if you wager that God doesn’t exist, and you’re wrong—you risk eternal loss.

Conclusion: It’s smarter to bet on God

According to Rousseau, what role do appearances play in society as arts and sciences advance?

People become more focused on appearances and reputation, masking their true selves in order to gain social approval.

What “personal solution” does Rousseau define in response to the corruption caused by the arts and sciences?

He calls for a return to simplicity, virtue, and natural living, valuing honesty and inner morality over intellectual achievement.

How does Rousseau suggest we should relate to our emotions or “the heart” in response to the corruption of civilization?

Rousseau encourages reconnecting with the natural feelings of the heart — valuing sincerity, compassion, and inner virtue over public acclaim and artificial achievements.

According to Rousseau, what are the true foundations of the arts and sciences?

The arts and sciences are built on human vices like pride, vanity, ambition, and inequality, rather than on pure moral goodness.

What is Rousseau’s critique of education in the Discourse on the Sciences and Arts?

He argues that education in corrupt societies focuses on outward polish, cleverness, and ambition, rather than cultivating natural goodness, sincerity, and true virtue.

How does Rousseau relate philosophy to nature in the Discourse on the Sciences and Arts?

Rousseau believes true philosophy should lead us back to nature and authentic virtue, but in corrupt societies, philosophy often separates us from nature and encourages pride and artificial living.

How does Kant define “duty”?

Duty is acting out of respect for the moral law, not based on feelings, consequences, or self-interest.

What is a hypothetical imperative?

A hypothetical imperative tells you what you should do if you want to achieve a certain goal. It is conditional (e.g., “If you want to be healthy, you should exercise.”).

What is Kant’s First Proposition of Morality?

An action must be done from duty in order to have moral worth.

What is Kant’s Second Proposition of Morality?

Moral worth depends on the principle behind the action (acting from duty), not on the results it produces

What is Kant’s Third Proposition of Morality?

Duty is acting out of respect for the moral law, recognized by reason, not based on emotion or outcomes.

How is a hypothetical imperative related to goodness?

A hypothetical imperative is good only as a means to achieving a goal, not good in itself.

How is a categorical imperative related to goodness?

A categorical imperative commands an action that is good in itself, independent of any goal or desire.

What is Kant’s Formula of Universal Law?

Act only on maxims you can will to become universal laws for everyone.

What is Kant’s Formula of Humanity as an End in Itself?

Always treat humanity (yourself and others) as an end, never merely as a means.

What is Kant’s definition of good will?

Good will is the pure intention to do duty for its own sake, and it is the only thing good without qualification.

How does Kant connect dignity to creating and following laws?

Kant says dignity comes from being autonomous — rational beings give themselves moral laws through reason and follow them freely, making them ends in themselves.

What is autonomy according to Kant?

Autonomy is acting according to moral laws you give yourself through reason, representing true freedom and dignity.

What is heteronomy according to Kant?

Heteronomy is acting according to external influences or internal desires, meaning you are not truly free.

According to Kant, what has true intrinsic value?

A good will and the dignity of rational beings.

What is negative freedom?

Negative freedom is freedom from external interference or coercion.

What is positive freedom?

Positive freedom is rational self-governance — freely acting according to moral law you give yourself through reason

Why must we postulate freedom according to Kant?

Freedom is necessary because moral responsibility requires real choice.

Why must we postulate immortality according to Kant?

Immortality is needed to allow endless progress toward complete moral perfection.

What role does God play in Kant’s moral philosophy?

God guarantees that virtue and happiness are ultimately united, ensuring that moral effort is meaningful

What is the study of the form of thought called

Logic — it analyzes the structure and validity of thinking, without regard to content.

What does “material” mean in Kant’s philosophy?

Material refers to the specific content, goals, or desires that thought or actions aim at — like happiness, pleasure, or success.

What is theoretical reason according to Kant?

Theoretical reason seeks to understand what is — it explains facts, knowledge, and reality.

What is ‘therapeutic culture’ in Taylor’s critique?

A cultural atmosphere that prioritizes self-esteem, personal affirmation, and emotional well-being above moral judgment or truth.

How does therapeutic culture distort moral authenticity?

It encourages people to avoid discomfort or moral challenge, affirming all beliefs equally, even when they lack depth or coherence.

What is social atomism according to Charles Taylor?

It’s the belief that individuals exist as self-contained, autonomous units, independent of social ties or obligations to others.

Why does Taylor reject the idea of the isolated self?

He argues that identity is dialogical—we become who we are through relationships, language, and shared cultural meanings.

What is ‘instrumental reason’ according to Charles Taylor?

It’s the mindset where reason is used purely as a tool to calculate the most efficient means to achieve a given end—valuing utility over meaning.

Why does Taylor worry about the dominance of instrumental reason?

It reduces all values to what is useful or efficient, crowding out deeper moral, spiritual, or communal goods.

In what way does Taylor argue authenticity should be flexible?

Authenticity must remain open to correction—society and others can challenge our values, helping us refine and deepen our self-understanding.

Does Taylor believe authenticity is the same in all societies?

No—he argues that the meaning of authenticity depends on the cultural, historical, and social context we inhabit.

What does “La Lutte Continue” mean in the context of Taylor’s argument?

It means “the struggle continues”—Taylor is affirming that the fight to preserve meaningful versions of freedom, authenticity, and dignity is ongoing.

Why is authenticity potentially dangerous, according to Taylor?

Because it can lead individuals to reject all social norms, cutting them off from community, shared values, and moral accountability.

How is authenticity also a call to self-responsibility?

It challenges you to reflect deeply on your values, not blindly follow tradition or authority—you must answer for how you live.

Why does Taylor argue that authenticity shouldn’t follow trends?

Because trends are shaped by external pressures—true authenticity must come from inner reflection and a sincere connection to what truly matters.

What does Taylor mean by “manner” vs. “matter” in the context of authenticity?

Manner refers to how we choose and express our values (our sincerity, independence, and self-reflection), while matter refers to what values we choose—the actual content of those beliefs.

What does Taylor argue about the ‘matter’ of authenticity?

He insists that some values are better than others—we must still engage in strong evaluation to judge the moral worth of our commitments.

What does Taylor mean by the need to “create a language for authenticity”?

He means we must develop a shared vocabulary that allows us to talk seriously about what it means to live authentically and morally well.

What does Taylor say happens when we move beyond subjectivism?

We open ourselves to an objective moral horizon—a shared reality where some values are more meaningful, and the good is worth pursuing.

What causes the feeling of being in an iron cage, according to Taylor?

The dominance of efficiency, economic logic, and technological control—which crowd out deeper moral or spiritual aims.

Why does Taylor describe the iron cage as a ‘cold’ approach to life?

Because it prioritizes control, efficiency, and calculation over human connection, compassion, and deeper purpose.

What does Taylor mean by “disengagement

Disengagement is the modern idea that we can stand apart from the world, society, and even our own desires to objectively analyze or control them.

What does decentralizing power achieve in Taylor’s moral vision?

It moves us away from cold, top-down systems and toward pluralistic, participatory structures where diverse voices co-create meaning.

How does Taylor refer to a fragmented society?

As a world marked by moral relativism, isolation, and loss of shared meaning—where people pursue authenticity without common reference points or community.

What is negative freedom in Taylor’s framework?

The freedom from interference—being left alone to make your own choices without outside constraints (e.g., from the state, church, or others).

What is positive freedom according to Taylor?

The freedom to realize your true self or fulfill your moral potential—it’s not just about choice, but about choosing well and living meaningfully.

How does Charles Taylor use the idea of ‘subsidies’ in relation to decentralization?

He argues that for decentralization to be meaningful, we must “subsidize” local voices—not just financially, but through cultural recognition, resources, and institutional support.

Why is sacred doctrine necessary, according to Aquinas?

Because human reason is limited, and we need divine revelation to know higher truths that reason alone cannot reach.

According to Aquinas, what role does Scripture play in human understanding?

Scripture lifts us beyond the limits of human reason by revealing divine truths we could not reach on our own.

What does Aquinas mean by sacred doctrine being a “higher” science?

It’s higher because it gets its principles from a superior source—God—rather than human observation or reasoning.

Is sacred doctrine nobler than other sciences according to Aquinas?

Yes. Aquinas says sacred doctrine is the noblest science because of its source (God), its subject (divine realities), and its goal (eternal salvation).

What is a speculative science according to Aquinas?

speculative science seeks knowledge for its own sake—truths about reality, not actions. Examples include theology, metaphysics, and mathematics.

What is a practical science

A practical science aims at guiding human action—like ethics, politics, or economics

What are the four senses of Scripture according to Aquinas?

Literal, Allegorical, Moral (or tropological), and Anagogical

What is the literal sense of Scripture?

It’s the plain meaning of the text—what the words directly say or describe.

What is the allegorical sense?

It reveals how events in the Old Testament point to Christ or Christian truth.

Example: The Red Sea parting is allegorical of Christ’s victory over sin and death.

What is the moral (tropological) sense?

It teaches how we should live and act—lessons for personal conduct.

Example: The Israelites’ journey teaches us to trust God during hardship.

What is the anagogical sense?

It shows eternal or heavenly realities—how something relates to salvation or the afterlife.

Example: The Promised Land foreshadows heaven.

Is the existence of God self-evident according to Aquinas?

No, not to us. It is not self-evident to the human mind because we do not directly perceive God’s essence.

What does Aquinas mean by something being “self-evident in itself”?

A truth is self-evident in itself if the predicate is contained within the subject—like “a triangle has three sides.”

Does Aquinas prove God’s existence a priori or a posteriori?

Does Aquinas prove God’s existence a priori or a posteriori?

What is Aquinas’s First Way?

The Argument from Motion — Everything in motion was put in motion by something else. There must be a First Mover, unmoved by anything else. That is God.

What is Aquinas’s Second Way?

The Argument from Causation — Every effect has a cause. But there can’t be an infinite chain of causes. There must be a First Cause that caused everything else. That is God.

What is Aquinas’s Third Way?

The Argument from Contingency — Things in the world come into and go out of existence (they’re contingent). But if everything were contingent, at some point nothing would exist. So, there must be a Necessary Being that always exists. That is God.

What is Aquinas’s Fourth Way?

The Argument from Degrees (Gradation) — We recognize degrees of goodness, truth, nobility, etc. These must be measured against a perfect standard. There must be something that is Goodness itself. That is God.

What is Aquinas’s Fifth Way?

The Argument from Design (Teleology) — Non-intelligent things (like plants or stars) act toward a purpose. This order must come from an intelligent director. That is God.