Unit 2 Cognition, Memory, and Intelligence Test AP Psych

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cognition

mental activity that goes on in the brain when a person is processing information

includes organizing, understanding, and communicating information to others.

Concepts

Ideas that represent a class or category of objects, events, or activities

Contain important features of objects or events people want to think about, but also allow you to identify new events and object that fit the concept.

 formal (or artificial) concepts

Concepts that are defined by specific rules or features

Natural concepts

 concepts that people form as a result of their experiences in the real world or every day life

Schema

 a more complex mental framework that includes not just a category or concept, but also expectations, knowledge, and associations with that category.

mental generalizations people, events, places, and things.

Prototypes

the BEST example or cognitive representation of something within a certain schema or concept

Scripts

a kind of schema involving a familiar sequence of activities.

 mental blueprint for a sequence of events in a familiar situation

algorithm

 precise, step-by-step problem-solving procedure that guarantees a correct answer

Functional fixedness

 block to problem solving that comes from thinking about objects only in terms of their typical functions. “I can only use it for this one thing!”

mental sets

solutions that have been successful in the past, but may not be helpful in solving a new problem.

Creativity

the process of solving problems by combining ideas or behavior in new ways\

Has 5 components:

• Expertise

• Imaginative thinking skills

• A venturesome personality

• Intrinsic motivation

• A creative environment

 convergent thinking

 when a problem is seen as having only one answer, and all lines of thinking will eventually lead to that single answer, using previous knowledge and logic.

Divergent thinking

a person starts from one point and comes up with many different ideas or possibilities based on that point. This type of thinking is attributed to both creativity and intelligence.

Problem solving

occurs when a goal must be reached by thinking and behaving in certain ways

 decision making

identifying, evaluating, and choosing between alternatives.

Heuristic (or “rule of thumb”)

educated guess based on prior experiences that helps narrow down the possible solutions for a problem, but doesn’ guarantee and solution

simple, efficient rules, learned from experience, that we use to make decisions, come to judgements, and solve problem

Trial and Error (mechanical solution)

 problem-solving method in which one possible solution after another is tried until a successful solution is found.

Representative heuristic

assumption that any object (or person) sharing characteristics with the members of a particular category is also a member of that category.

Availability heuristic

 estimates the frequency or likelihood of an event based on how easy it is to recall relevant information from memory or think of related examples

Working backward

from the goal is another useful heuristic. Breaking a goal down into subgoals so that as each subgoal is achieved a solution is that much closer.

Overconfidence

Our tendency to be more confident than correct

It is an overestimate in the accuracy of our own beliefs

Planning fallacy

• underestimate how long it will take us to complete a task

Sunk-cost fallacy

• can be reluctant to abandon a strategy or course of action because we have invested in it

Dunning-Kruger effect

Those with the least knowledge or skill often tend to be the most confident

confirmation bias

tendency to search for, interpret, favor, and recall information in a way that confirms the belief you hold while giving less attention to information that contradicts it.

Belief Perseverance

tendency to maintain a belief even after it has been proven incorrect

Motivated reasoning

 the cognitive process of processing information in a biased way to reach a desired conclusion, rather than objectively finding the truth

Framing

The way that we present an issue can significantly affect decisions and judgements:

If an option is presented as a gain, we are more likely to go with it

Memory

 the persistence of learning over time through the encoding, storage, and retrieval of information

recall

memories are “pulled” from memory with few or no external cues

recognition

 match a piece of information or a stimulus to a stored image or fact

Retrieval failure

 recall has failed (temporarily). The tip of the tongue (TOT) phenomenon is an example

Relearning

learning something more quickly once you’ve learned it previously

Encoding

turning sensory information into signals for the brain and making mental representations of information

Storing

•  the process of placing encoded information into relatively permanent mental storage for later recall

Retrieving

•  process of recalling information that has been placed into short-term or long-term storage

Structural encoding

Relatively shallow processing that emphasizes the physical structure of the stimuli

Phonetic encoding

Emphasizes what words sound like, involving names or saying the words (maybe silently)

Semantic encoding

Emphasizes the meaning of verbal input, what the objects and actions the words present

Sensory memory

the initial process that receives and hold information in its raw form for a brief period of time

Short-term memory (STM)

• holds on average seven items of information for 2 to 30 seconds

• It is of limited duration and limited capacity.

  Temporarily holds information coming in for a short time before you either forget it or transfer it to long-term memory

  
  

Long-term memory (LTM)

• the process of storing almost unlimited amounts of information, skills, and experiences over long periods of time

Working Memory

Prolongs memory storage through maintenance rehearsal or elaborative rehearsal

• Active processing of incoming sensory information

• Retrieval of information from long-term memory

Helps you keep information in your head while you use it, & connects new information with previously-learned information

phonological loop

• temporarily stores & rehearses auditory & verbal information

visuospatial sketchpad

• holds visual information about an object’s appearance & location

long-term potentiation (LTP).

Repeated stimulation of neural connections lead to increased efficiency of neural communication

• Receiving neurons become more sensitive to messages from the sending neuron

• Creates more synaptic connections

 Implicit (nondeclarative) memory

• well-learned skills, information, & classically conditioned associations

Automatic processing

• the unconscious encoding of well-learned or incidental information

  • Space: remembering where you read information on a page

  • Time: sequences of events throughout the day

  • Frequency: how many times you’ve seen a person today

  • Procedural memories: how to ride a bike

Explicit (declarative) memory

Other information that takes effort to process like memories of facts and life events

Effortful processing

•  encoding that requires attention and conscious effort

  • New skills: reading, learning psychology

Sensory Memory

very first stage of memory when information enters the nervous system through the sensory systems.

Iconic memory

•  our momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli

  • Lasts a few tenths of a second

Echoic memory

• is our momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli

  • Lasts 3-4 seconds

Photographic Memory

the ability to create eidetic imagery can recall a memory in minute detail and portray the most interesting and meaningful parts most accurately. These images can last as short as a brief moment or as long as days.

selective attention

the ability to focus on only one stimulus from among a multitude of sensory input. 

Chunking

organizing items into familiar, manageable units, often occurs automatically

Mnemonics

 memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices

Peg-word

harnesses our superior visual imagery skill

Method of Loci

•  visualize and recall items at specific spots along a route

Hierarchies

• break down information into a few board categories, then subdivide into narrower concepts & facts

• Ex: Entertainment, Video games, RPGs, Deltarune

• Helps us retrieve information efficiently 

spacing effect 

Distributed practice yields better retention than massed practice

testing effect

Repeated self-testing also yields good results

semantic network model

 assumes that information is stored in the brain in a connected fashion. Concepts that are related stored physically closer to each other than to unrelated concepts

Explicit  memory

 type of long-term memory containing information that is conscious and known. It is memories for facts and events. In other words, all the things that people know.

Semantic memory

involves knowledge of facts, concepts, words, definitions, & language rules

Episodic memory

 involves knowledge of daily activities and events, personal experiences, and activities

Semantic and episodic memories and both forms of ___ memory, memory that is consciously known. This is processed in the ____ and ____

explicit

hippocampus and prefrontal cortex.

Nondeclarative (or implicit) memory

type of long-term memory including procedural memory (skills, procedures, habits), emotional association, and simple conditioned reflexes.

• These memories are typically implicit (unconscious), meaning we don’t “remember” them but they affect conscious behavior.

 procedural memory

(skills, procedures, habits)

Nondeclarative/implicit memory is processed in the ____ (form and store memories created by classical conditioning) and ____ (form memories for skills like riding a bike)

cerebellum

basal ganglia

Anterograde amnesia

 loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long-term memories. However it usually does NOT affect procedural LTM

Flashbulb memories

These are clear, vivid, snapshot-like memories of emotionally significant events

• This can be personal or global

Retrieval cues

• such as mood or environment - can help us pull these stored memories into our consciousness

retrospective memory

 retrieve memories associated with our past

prospective memory

intended future actions

Priming

 involves the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory

Context-Dependent Memory

• Memory is heavily dependent on in which something was learned)

  • Certain environments can trigger certain memories

encoding specificity principle

• states that memory retrieval is most effective when we are in the environment which the information was learned

Mood-congruent memory

• refers to our tendency to recall experiences consistent with your current mood

Metacognition

• monitoring & evaluating your own learning

Testing effect

• repeated self-testing & rehearsal of previously-learned information helps with retention

Interleaving

• mixing up multiple subjects while studying instead of studying each topic separately

  • Allows for extra retrieval practice as we switch between different topics

Amnesia

A loss of memory, can be the result of concussions, brain injuries, disease, or disorders of the aging brain.

Retrograde amnesia

loss of memory from the point of some injury or trauma backwards, or loss of memory for the past

Anterograde amnesia

loss of memory from the point of injury or trauma forward, or the inability to form new long-term memories.

Infantile amnesia

 inability to retrieve memories from much before age three. Early memories tend to be implicit. Hippocampus not fully developed until after age 2

autobiographical memory,

the memory for events and facts related to one’s personal life story (usually after age 3)

encoding failure

 the failure to process information into memory. This happens when you just aren’t listening or paying attention

memory trace

physical change in the brain that occurs when a memory is formed. When time passes and the memory trace is not used, decay (loss of the memory) happens.

Retrieval Failure

• The memory has been encoded & stored, but you just cannot access it at that moment

 proactive interference

memory retrieval problem that occurs when older information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of newer information

retroactive interference

a memory retrieval problem that occurs when newer information prevents or interferes with the retrieval of older information.

Motivated Forgetting

• We sometimes alter or “forget” information from the past 

  • May be embarrassing or we want someone to view us in a more positive light

Repression

• Defense mechanism that pushes painful, traumatic, or unacceptable thoughts into the unconscious

Recognition

 ability to match a piece of information or stimulus to a stored image or fact. Remembering what people look like, words, sounds, and multiple choice tests, are all examples of recognition

Reconsolidation

 when previously stored information can be altered before being stored again.

misinformation effect

 occurs when a memory has been distorted by misleading or incorrect information (often called false memories or memory reconstruction)

false positive

 error of recognition in which people think that they recognize a stimulus that is not actually in memory

 intelligence

ability to learn from one’s experiences, acquire knowledge, and use resources effectively in adapting to new situations or solving problems. 

Charles Spearman intelligence theory

intelligence as 2 different abilities general (g) and specific (s) intelligence