Mun Psych 2021 Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood

Physical growth continues at a?

slow, regular pace

Girls are slightly shorter and lighter than boys until about?

age 9, when this trend reverses

The lower portion of the body is?

growing the fastest

After age 8, girls accumulate?

fat at a faster rate

Factors accounting for physical size differences?

hereditary, and environmental

Hereditary factors?

evolutionary adaptations to particular climates

Environmental factors?

availability or scarcity of food; control of infectious diseases

Secular trend in physical growth?

systematic change from one generation to the next in body size and in the timing of the attainment of growth milestones

Secular gain in height and weight?

appears in the first two years in industrialized nations, expands during childhood and early adolescence, and declines as a mature body size is reached

Height gains over the past 150 years have stabilized, though weight gains continue because of?

improved nutrition and health, and faster rate of physical development in today's children

Skeletal growth?

bones lengthen and broaden, ligaments are not yet firmly attached to bones, resulting in unusual flexibility, and nighttime "growing pains" are common

Between ages 6 and 12, all primary teeth have been?

replaced by permanent teeth

Malocclusion occurs in?

one-third of school-age children

Brain development?

weight of the brain increases by 10%

White matter rises steadily, especially in?

the prefrontal cortex, parietal lobes, and corpus callosum

Gray matter peaks, then?

declines as a result of synaptic pruning

Synaptic pruning and accompanying reorganization and selection of brain circuits lead to?

more effective information processing

Neurotransmitters and hormones may affect?

brain development and functioning

Gains in basic gross-motor capacities?

flexibility, balance, agility, and force

Advances in fine-motor skills?

writing, and drawing

Piaget's Theory of the attainments of the concrete operational stage is?

thinking is more logical, flexible, and organized (7 to 11 years old)

Decentration is?

the ability to focus on several aspects of a problem

Reversibility is?

thinking through a series of steps and then returning to the starting point

Classification is?

children pass Piaget's class inclusion problem (ages 7 to 10)

Seriation is?

the ability to order items along a quantitative dimension, such as length or weight

Transitive inference is?

the ability to seriate mentally

Spatial reasoning is?

cognitive maps, ability to locate landmarks on maps improves, 10 to 12-year-olds increasingly grasp scale, and substantial differences exist, influenced by cultural contexts

Cognitive maps are?

mental representations of spaces

Children's mental operations are most effective when dealing with?

concrete information, and work poorly with abstract ideas

Continuum of acquisition is?

children master concrete operational tasks step by step, not all at once

Around age 6, IQ becomes more stable and predicts?

school performance, and educational attainment

Current IQ tests provide?

an overall score representing general intelligence and separate scores measuring specific mental abilities, and do not measure all aspects of intelligence

Factor analysis is used to?

identify abilities measured by intelligence tests

When defining and measuring intelligence, group-administered tests allow?

testing of large groups, require little training to administer, are useful for instructional planning, and identify students who need further evaluation

When defining and measuring intelligence, Individually-administered tests demand?

training and experience to give well, provide insight into whether a test score accurately reflects a child's abilities, and are often used to identify highly intelligent children and those with learning problems

Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, measures five intellectual factors such as?

general knowledge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, working memory, and basic information processing (age 2 to adulthood)

Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-V (WISC-V) measures four broad intellectual factors such as?

verbal reasoning, perceptual (or visual-spatial) reasoning, working memory, and processing speed (ages 6 to 16)

Sternberg emphasizes the complexity of intelligent behavior and the limitations of?

current intelligence tests in assessing that complexity

Intelligence's of Sternberg's triarchic theory of successful intelligence?

analytical intelligence, creative intelligence, and practical intelligence

Analytical intelligence is?

information processing

Creative intelligence is?

generating useful solutions to new problems

Practical intelligence is?

adapting to, shaping, or selecting environments

Intelligence's of Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences?

linguistic, logico-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, naturalist, interpersonal, and intrapersonal

Most powerful evidence on the heritability of IQ involves?

twin comparisons

About half of the differences in IQ among children can be traced to their?

genetic makeup

Adoption studies are used to study the origins of IQ disparities between?

ethnic groups

Cultural influences on differences in IQ?

test bias may contribute, language and communication styles do not always match classrooms and testing situations, and low-income students tend to score lower due to having fewer learning opportunities

Stereotype threat is?

the fear of being judged on the basis of a negative stereotype can trigger anxiety that interferes with performance

Flynn effect describes?

how IQs have increased steadily from one generation to the next, and applies internationally

Amount of increase in IQ depends on the extent of?

societal modernization

Modernization contributes to greater participation by each successive generation in?

cognitively stimulating leisure activities

IQ scores underestimate the intelligence of ethnic minority children/groups, so flexible testing procedures enhance?

minority children's performance

Dynamic assessment is?

a form of testing in which an adult introduces purposeful teaching into the testing situation

Dynamic assessment is consistent with Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, revealing what a?

child can attain with social support

How does vocabulary and grammar continue to develop?

metalinguistic awareness develops, and vocabulary increases fourfold

Reading contributes enormously to?

an increase in vocabulary

Children grasp double meanings and come to?

appreciate riddles and puns

Mastery of complex grammatical constructions improves how?

english-speaking children use the passive voice more frequently, and understanding of infinitive phrases advances

2 types of bilingual development?

simultaneous, and sequential

Bilingual children sometimes engage in?

code switching

Sensitive period for second-language development exists, though a?

precise age cutoff has not been found

Higher the degree of bilingualism, the greater the?

cognitive gains

Bilingual education may proceed in the form of?

two-way immersion, full immersion, or partial immersion

In traditional classrooms the teacher is?

the sole authority

In constructivist classrooms children are active agents who reflect on and coordinate their own thoughts rather than?

absorbing thoughts of others

Social-constructivist classroom are?

children jointly construct understandings with teachers and peers

Reciprocal teaching is?

group questions, summarize, clarify, and predict in cooperative dialogues

Communities of learners is when?

adult and child contributors define and resolve problems

Signs of high-quality education in elementary school?

physical setting is divided into richly equipped activity centers, curriculum helps children achieve standards and make sense of their learning, daily activities encourage cooperative learning

Teachers in high-quality schools foster progress with intellectually engaging strategies and?

demonstrate, explain, coach, and assist

High-quality schools do regular evaluations of progress help children reflect on?

their work and decide how to improve it

Teacher in high-quality schools forge?

partnerships with parents

Educational self-fulfilling prophecies?

children may adopt teachers' positive or negative views and start to live up to them

Teacher expectations have a greater impact on?

low-achieving students than on high-achieving students

Academic stereotypes about ethnic minority students have?

self-fulfilling effects on their behavior

Child in the position of confirming a negative stereotype may respond with especially intense?

anxiety and reduced motivation, amplifying a negative self-fulfilling prophecy

Homogeneous groups or classes can be a potent source of?

self-fulfilling prophesies

Heterogenous learning contexts can reduce achievement differences between?

SES groups, ethnic minority, and majority students

For collaboration between heterogeneous peers to succeed, children need extensive training and guidance in?

cooperative learning

Cooperative learning is?

small groups work toward common goals, classmates consider one another's ideas, challenge one another, correct misunderstandings, and resolve differences of opinion

Digital divides persist for?

girls and low-SES students, needing increased opportunities to benefit from the positive aspects of screen-media technology

Learning disabilities is?

great difficulty with one or more aspects of learning, usually reading

In inclusive classrooms?

learning-disabled children learn alongside typical students

Students with mild intellectual disability are sometimes?

integrated into regular classrooms and sometimes experience full inclusion

Students with disabilities achievement gains depend on both the?

severity of the disability and the support services available

If steps are taken to promote positive peer relationships, inclusion can?

foster prosocial behavior

Gifted children display?

exceptional intellectual strengths

Creativity in children is?

producing work that is original yet appropriate

Divergent thinking is?

generation of multiple possibilities when faced with a task or problem

Convergent thinking is?

arriving at a single correct answer; emphasized on intelligence tests

Talent in children is?

outstanding performance in a specific field

If not sufficiently challenged, gifted students may?

lose their drive to excel